Egypt’s Monuments Part VIII: The Pyramids Part V; The Man-Headed, Lion-Bodied Statue, “The Father Of Terror”

The Great Sphinx is a magnificent, massive statue whose builder and meaning are often questioned. Although most modern Egyptologists consign the statue to King Khafre of the Fourth Dynasty, who also built the second pyramid standing in Giza aside the Khufu’s Horizon, it is still debated. There were three sons of Khufu, and even though Khafre was the last in line to rule he was the only one to follow in Khufu’s foot-steps. The Other two monarchs between Khufu and Khafre abandoned building, and residing, in Giza and went to Abu Rawish to build their tombs. But both sons had early deaths and the second son, Djedefre, is the only mentioned as having reign in Egypt. The first son died before Khufu’s reign was up. After Djedefre’s death his half brother took over reign in Egypt; King Khafre. In this post I will first focus on Khafre’s pyramid which stands beside the Great Pyramid, and then I will proceed to explain the Great Sphinx’s existence in Egypt; who made it and its meaning. But doing so will be difficult because there are many mysteries behind the Great Sphinx and not a single Egyptologist can give a clear-cut answer to who built it and what its purpose is. As I said, Khafre was the next ruler of Egypt to follow in Khufu’s shoes and build a gigantic pyramid beside Khufu’s Horizon. But even though the middle pyramid of Giza looks as big as the Great Pyramid it is in fact smaller: “From a distance, the middle pyramid at Giza seems to be the highest, although it was originally some three meters lower than Khufu’s pyramid. It stands on a more elevated part of the necropolis, the angle of its walls is somewhat steeper, and its apex is in better condition, which makes it look bigger.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids: Their Archaeology and History. New York: Grove Press, 1997, p. 223). Though Khafre succeeded to build a major pyramid next to his father’s there are plenty of differences between the two pyramids, and you can never judge a book by its cover.

Even though the outer structure of the middle pyramid at Giza is sturdy, and has survived the harshness of the desert better then that of the Great Pyramid. Its inner structure and core are not as precisely built as that of the Great Pyramid. The middle pyramid of Giza is called “Khafre is Great” and its builder’s full name is Khafkhufu, but his name was changed to Khafre upon receiving the throne. Not only is Khafre recognized for the equally enormous pyramid standing next to the Great Pyramid, he also built many other, smaller, structures near and surrounding both pyramids. One of these is the Valley Temple, and the other is possibly the Great Sphinx. But working on so many structures throughout his lifetime came back to bite him. Unlike Snefru, Khafre knew that his lifespan might not be but so long, especially with his brother’s early deaths, and so he was rushed to do some of his projects more than others. One of these “rushed” projects was his tomb, so that it would be ready for his death. Even though the outer structure has withstood erosion, the inner structure is sloppier done than Khufu’s. “The core of Khafre’s pyramid was less carefully constructed than that of Khufu’s Great Pyramid: the layers do not always run exactly horizontally, the joints are sometimes very wide, and mortar is often lacking between blocks.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 225). Like Khufu he used pink granite as a material in the inner structure, but unlike Khufu he constructed the lower chambers in it and this provided a very unstable foundation. Which, being in a place where earthquake tremors happen often was not the brightest thing to do. Miroslav Verner tells how a team of Italian experts recently found evidence that tremors had quite an effect on the pyramid’s infrastructure: “They discovered that the corner edges of the remaining portions of the casing are not completely straight; the individual blocks are slightly turned in various directions. A very simple explanation for this peculiarity was confirmed by a computer simulation and suggests that the cause was seismic activity – not uncommon in either modern or ancient Egypt.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 226). Also like Khufu, Khafre used pink granite in the burial chamber and had his sarcophagus made entirely out of this material, his remains were never found as well. “Near the west wall stands the pink granite sarcophagus, sunk slightly into the floor; originally, it had a sliding top. A small shaft in the burial chamber’s floor originally contained the royal canopic vessel. However, no safely identified remains of Khafre’s mummy or his tomb furnishings were found.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 228).

Khafre not only worked on his pyramid, and possibly the Great Sphinx, but also built smaller structures surrounding both. Like with all kings and pharaohs of the past, a pyramid was not the only thing built and in it’s complex there were usually mortuary temples, plus other small temples and buildings surrounding the main it. Khafre built a mortuary temple, temples surrounding the Sphinx, and the valley temple. The main material used in all of Khafre’s projects was pink granite, as well as lime-stone, and he tended to use pink granite more than his predecessors. An interesting, and very unique, detail concerning the mortuary temple and the valley temple is that there was a tunnel underground that connected them. Only Khafre and King Amenemhet III have these tunnels within their pyramid complexes. These tunnels were lined with limestone blocks and would be like cement underground tunnels of today. “Particularly noteworthy was the discovery of ‘tunnels’ dug through the rock subsoil under the causeways; these were paved with limestone blocks and led to the two entrances to the valley temple. The tunnels have a slightly convex profile resembling that of a boat. A definitive interpretation of all these structures will probably not be available until the archaeological investigation is completed; however, they appear to be the remains of quays and structures occasionally used for burial ceremonies.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 232). Another interesting fact about Khafre’s buildings and projects is the numerous statues of himself found throughout his work. Unlike Khufu, who only had one statue that was found portraying him, there have been many statues found of Khafre: “The number of statues and their precise function, not only in Khafre’s pyramid complex but also in other pyramids, is a subject of debate among Egyptologists. For example, Edwards [Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards] estimates that there could have been as many as one or two hundred of them in the Khafre complex.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 233). Miroslav Verner goes on to describe the majesty of the valley temple and the structures surrounding the pyramids at Giza and the Great Sphinx. “The valley temple is not only a masterpiece of ancient Egyptian monumental architecture, but also the best preserved example of its kind in the Old Kingdom. For precisely that reason the area in front of it was cleared of sand, and in 1869 the temple, together with the other monuments of the pyramid necropolis in Giza, represented the background for the ceremonial opening of the Suez Canal, which was witnessed by a hand-picked elite among the entourage of Empress Eugenie.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 234).

As stated before even though the origin of the Great Sphinx is still unsure most Egyptologists place it as being created under the reign of Khafre. This mysterious structure is often debated and has marveled people across the centuries: “The Great Sphinx in Giza is more than simply a symbol of ancient and modern Egypt. It is the very embodiment of antiquity and of mystery itself. Over the centuries it has fired the imaginations of poets and scientists, adventurers and travelers.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 234). The native people call the Great Sphinx “Abu al-Hawl” which means “The Father of Terror.” Also the word sphinx is actually a Greek word, but the Egyptian word for it is shesep-ankh which means “living image.” All research and investigations on the Sphinx have come up with the precise measurement, the specific materials used, and everything except who built it and its purpose. There are those who date it during the time of Khufu, those who say it was during Djedefre’s reign, and others who say it was created by Khafre. Miroslav Verner himself agrees with it being done in Khafre’s era because of the archaeological contexts: “However, suggestions that it was created between 7000 and 5000 B.C.E., and possibly even earlier, are so incompatible with the specific archaeological and general historical contexts that they need not be taken seriously. Now as in the past, most Egyptologists believe the Sphinx was Khafre’s work and was created during the construction of his pyramid complex. Researchers base their opinion on carefully developed and verified work procedures and methods.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 236). This is why Verner places the Sphinx in Khafre’s section of his book. So if it’s true that the Great Sphinx was created when the pyramid complex was, then it would attest to why Khafre’s pyramid wasn’t built as architecturally good as Khufu’s, because he was working on more than one project at a time and since the Sphinx was the most unique structure he might have spent more time making that architecturally precise. The Sphinx has the head of a man and the body of a lion, and faces the east. On the head, the Sphinx wears the traditional nemes crown and uraeus symbol of the sacred asp, and was originally painted red which can still be seen vaguely. But who is the man the Sphinx’s face wears? There are many different theories on this as well. One is that it is the image of the sun god Re (or Ra), and the other view is that it bears Khafre’s image; but both are just hypotheses. From the time it was created unto recent times many people have taken on the task of reconstructing and preserving the Great Sphinx. In the New Kingdom era of Egypt Pharaoh Thutmose IV had a dream where the Sphinx spoke to him and promised him that he would become ruler if he removed the sand from off the Sphinx; this is recorded in dream stela. In Roman times, as well, there is evidence that restorations were made on the structure. In our time as well, 1998, the Sphinx was entirely restored, and I actually remember seeing this on the news when I was about ten years old.

All in all the Great Sphinx has marveled, amazed, and terrified people from the day it was built. It is just another testament to the awe-aspiring architecture of the ancient Egyptians. “The Great Sphinx (the local people call it Abu al-Hawl, “The Father of Terror”) is a colossal statue of a recumbent lion with the head of a ruler. It is over sixty meters long and twenty meters high, and was long considered the largest statue in the world.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 235). It is as intimidating as the three enormous pyramids that stand behind it, and has been sought out by people from every culture just so they could get a glimpse at its magnificence. The structures in Egypt are the most fascinating architectural amazement of the ancient world, but those that stand in Giza none can compare to them. I will leave you with a final quote from Miroslav Verner on Khafre and his achievements: “We can assume that with him the main branch of the royal family once again became dominant. Along with the growing importance of sun worship, the Re’s priesthood’s power further increased during Khafre’s reign. As a result, the Sphinx, which was worshiped as an image of the sun god Harmakhet (Greek Harmachis, ‘Horus in the horizon”), might have been incorporated into Khafre’s pyramid complex. The ruler retained strict control over the central state power and, through his family, over all the important offices of the land as well.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 157).

Egypt’s Monuments Part VII: The Pyramids Part IV; The First Seven Wonder Of The World

As promised Khufu is the next great king of Egypt I will cover. Khufu is famous for building one of the biggest structures in the world; the Great Pyramid of Giza. Like his father he achieved an architectural dream. Snefru was his father and we can assume that by watching his father build four, or more, pyramids that Khufu was challenged to surpass him. So instead of building many pyramids Khufu just built one enormous pyramid, so he chose quality over quantity. During this era of ancient Egypt the capitol city was Memphis and most kings of the Fourth Dynasty resided there, but Khufu moved his residence to modern day Giza and this is where he constructed his pyramid. Khufu’s full name was Khnemkhufu, and like his father he known to be a good and benevolent ruler. Many of the accomplishments Snefru did Khufu followed in his footsteps. He made boats and palaces out of cedar, and set up military campaigns in Nubia and Libya. But one thing he did that surpassed his father was the fact that he built the first earliest known dam in history. (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids: Their Archaeology and History. New York: Grove Press, 1997, p. 154-155). King Khufu made such an impact on history by building the Great Pyramid, but he also made an impact in his own time. As ruler he set up a hierarchy system with the royal family being the officials over the state, and this was the first time such a system was set up. Even after his death many royals wanted to be buried by him. “Around the pyramid was built a necropolis with smaller pyramids for the queens and mastabas for other members of the royal family and high state officials. It was an expression of the longing even after death to lie near the ‘good god’ – that is, the pharaoh – and at the same time it reflected the hierarchal social order of ancient Egypt, which resembled a pyramid in form.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 155).

There are only a few things I will focus on with King Khufu and the Great Pyramid, but Khufu, like Snefru, is a good king to mention because of his great achievement. There are many myths and stories surrounding the Great Pyramid of Giza because it looks like a task that was humanly impossible to do, especially in that time with the ancient technology they used. It would make more sense that aliens helped build it rather than human hands and wooden and stone pulleys and ramps. In fact that is one story surrounding the Great Pyramid that we most commonly see in movies; aliens helped to make it. But in fact it was build with just man-power, wooden ramps, papyrus ropes, and stone pulleys. This just shows that the Egyptians were advanced beyond their time. Miroslav Verner mentions the astonishment the Great Pyramid has had one people since the time it was built: “’Khufu’s Horizon,’ the Great Pyramid, was the first of the ancient Seven Wonders of the World. Surrounded by legends and mysteries, it has always aroused astonishment, admiration, and doubts as to whether it is the product of human hands at all. It has fascinated many generations of scholars and travelers.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 189). One of the most fascinating facts about the Great Pyramid is also a fact that is constantly debated by scholars and archaeologists alike, and that is the infrastructure, the inside, of the pyramid. I will get into some of these debates in a second, but first because of its substructure there could be many more hidden corridors and passageways that are still unfound and there are those who are still searching for them. “The debate about the Great Pyramid and its complex infrastructure will certainly go on for a long time. In this connection, we may quote a passage from the Westcar Papyrus: ‘His majesty Khufu spent time looking for hidden chambers in the temple of Thoth in order to create something like them for his Horizon’ (Khufu’s pyramid was called Khufu’s Horizon). This suggests that the author of the Middle Kingdom papyrus was aware of the complex plan of Khufu’s pyramid and had thought about its origin. The passage quoted above may also justify the efforts of those who are still searching for hidden rooms inside the pyramid.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 206). So it can be assumed from the Middle Kingdom text that Khufu purposefully built hidden rooms within the pyramid, and it would not be exaggerating to think this because of the enormous size of the pyramid.

One of the debated topics about the infrastructure of the Great Pyramid is the Queen’s Chamber and if it was meant to be a back-up chamber for the King in case he died before the completion of the pyramid. One of the things disputed with this is the shafts found in the Queen’s Chamber. In Egyptian worship of the dead the first mastabas and tombs would have shafts within the Kings chamber so that his soul would fly through them to reach the heavens where he would reign with the gods as a god. When the pyramids first started being made the shafts were built in them as well, but in the late Third early Fourth Dynasties the shafts in the pyramids first led down and then up to where the spirit of the king would exit to the heavens. “The Great Pyramid was not the only one in which the way out of the tomb led first downward and then upward in the direction of the pyramid’s entrance. For example, in the Medium Pyramid and in the Red Pyramid in Dashur the ruler’s soul had first to descend from the burial chamber in order to reach the ascending corridor that led out of the tomb.”(Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 201). But unlike those two pyramids the Great Pyramid had shafts that pointed north and south, and why would these shafts be in the Queen’s Chamber when the king was the only one who was looked on as a god? But, like I said, this is why some archaeologists believe that this chamber was meant to be a back-up chamber. Another view is that these were only built to be ventilation shafts so that the worker’s within the pyramid did not suffocate from lack of air, because both the Queen’s and King’s Chambers were above the entrance of the pyramid. “The architects realized that the circulation of air was made more difficult by the location of the chamber over the level of the pyramid’s entrance (both the King’s and the Queen’s Chambers are above this level), which could have led to serious problems if several people were in the chamber at once – during the burial rites, for example. The fact that the shafts are ‘astronomically aligned’ corresponds to the logic of the structure and to its builders’ practical conceptions and religious ideas. The ancient Egyptians were probably well aware that the dominant wind was from the north, as they commonly made use of it sailing on the Nile. Thus there was nothing unusual about the alignment of the shafts with a given star in the northern and southern skies; it thoroughly practical.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 201-202).

As mentioned in the first paragraph the Great Pyramid was not the only structure standing around it but there were smaller pyramids, mastabas, and walls that were possibly built by a king of a later era. But like his father Khufu had a small pyramid town where the workers would be housed, the materials kept, and any other necessary needs for the pyramid to be built. But another interesting fact about the surroundings around the Great Pyramid is the boat pits that were dug, with boats in them that were newly carved and had never been on water. But like with all findings the pits and the use of the boats is also debated: “The discovery of Khufu’s boat opened the discussions regarding the meaning of boat pits at the Great Pyramid and at royal tombs in general.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 209). Verner goes on to show us what the four views about the boat pits say: “the four boats buried near the east and south walls of the Great Pyramid were intended for the king’s use in traveling into the beyond in all four cardinal directions. The fifth pit near the approach causeway was supposed to contain the boat on which the king’s mummy was transported to the burial site……Other experts……considered the boat a sun boat and believed that the pharaoh was supposed to use it to travel over the heavenly ocean following the sun god Re……[Another two archaeologists] maintained that all the boats buried near the Great Pyramid were originally used to carry the pharaoh to Egypt’s holy places on pilgrimages and other ceremonial occasions……[Lastly] the boats were never in the water – traces of shavings around the boat pit show that they were built right next to the pyramid –…” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 209). So the purpose for the boats is still debated but as I mentioned in a previous post it was not uncommon for some cultures to bury their possessions with them.

The last things I wish to talk about from Miroslav Verner’s section on Khufu is the beautiful architecture with both the King’s Chamber and the Great Gallery. The Great Gallery is a long corridor that connects to the Queen’s Chamber and is one the most beautiful pieces of architectural work in history. Miroslav Verner goes on to explain the architecture in the Great Gallery: “The ceiling consists of a corbel vault built of seven layers of enormous lime-stone blocks, each of which projects about seven and a half centimeters. Low ramps run along both sides of the gallery. On their surfaces twenty-seven large and small square openings alternate at regular intervals. Corresponding to the right-angled niches in the side wall.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 197). Another architectural masterpiece that is as equally beautiful within the Great Pyramid is the King’s Chamber. The chamber, plus the sarcophagus, was made entirely out of pink granite. Even though limestone was one of the main materials used pink granite was also commonly used in the constructing of a pyramid. But the pink granite was harder to find and quarries had to be used to gather it and bring it to the building site. The reason for why pink granite was used in the King’s Chamber besides lime-stone or any other material wasn’t just because of it’s beautiful color but also because it was lighter, and because the King’s chamber was above the entrance and higher in the pyramid it was practical to use it. “To resist the enormous pressure, it was built entirely of pink granite. Its flat ceiling is composed of nine huge blocks with a combined wait of more than four hundred tons. The fact that there is only one small crack in the ceiling slabs (which appears only near the south wall) and that the chamber has withstood the tests of more than four and a half millennia, is to be explained not only by the building material used, but especially by the carefully thought out construction of the five relieving chambers over its ceiling.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 202). Not only was Khufu’s chamber made entirely out of pink granite but his sarcophagus, the item within the chamber, was as well. How the chamber must have looked like after it was finished in the time of Khufu? If its beauty has withstood the sands of time then it must have been twice as majestic in its newly finished form. Like many of the early pharaohs Khufu’s remains weren’t found inside the pink granite sarcophagus: “Near the west wall of the King’s Chamber stands Khufu’s pink granite sarcophagus, oriented north-south. Neither the cover nor any of the ruler’s bodily remains was found there.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 203). Many historians throughout time have had different theories on why this is. One of the most interesting is that during the construction of the King’s Chamber the crack in the ceiling happened and that it was heard throughout the pyramid and the eerie sound made Khufu decide not to be buried in his magnificent Horizon.   

Egypt’s Monuments Part VI: The Pyramids Part III; The Great Builder Snefru

Like I said in my last post I am going to deal with one of Egypt’s famous kings, and his most famed feat during his lifetime was the four pyramids he constructed. In Miroslav Verner’s chapter, The Fourth Dynasty – The Greatest Of The Great, he talks about the pharaohs who are behind the greatest architectural accomplishments within Egypt’s history; three of those pyramids being the Pyramids of Giza. The Third Dynasty rulers invented the pyramid, King Djoser, but the Fourth Dynasty kings improved upon them and created some of the world’s greatest structures. The first king of the Fourth Dynasty was Snefru, and he inherited the throne from King Huni. Most pharaohs only built one pyramid in their life time but Snefru is famous for building four, which signifies that he lived and reigned for a long time. He made two pyramids that were near where he eventually resided in Dashur, and then one in Medium, and one in Seila. Miroslav Verner talks about the progress made in the Fourth Dynasty with King Snefru: “Under his reign the strongly centralized Egyptian state reached the apex of its power, and indirect but eloquent testimony to this fact is provided by the mighty pyramids in Dashur and Giza.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids: Their Archaeology and History. New York: Grove Press, 1997, p. 153). Many people think that King Khufu, who built the Great Pyramid, was the greatest builder of all time, but Snefru built four pyramids during his time when Khufu only built one. So the title, as well, can go to Snefru for being the greatest builder in Egypt. Khufu was the son of Snefru so we can claim that he got his ingenuity for building from his father. In this post I will give brief summaries of Snefru’s four pyramids and their architecture.

The first pyramid of Snefru’s that Verner examines is the Pyramid at Medium. Medium is located on the map near the Nile and was called Medium because it literally was the middle part of Egypt. It was a few miles from Giza and Memphis. The Pyramid was believed to be started by Huni, Snefru’s predecessor, and Snefru was put to the task of finishing it. King Huni, the last King of the Third Dynasty, built the pyramid to be a Step Pyramid, but Snefru modified it and made it into a true pyramid with an apex. Most Step Pyramids did not have an apex on them, the tip of the pyramid, and the tops of the Step Pyramids were flat. Snefru took Huni’s idea and improved upon it, and this started what is called the Golden Age of the Old Kingdom. But Verner goes on to say that this idea of King Huni building the first sections on the pyramid and Snefru taking it over is questioned because only Snefru’s name appears on the pyramid. “Huni’s name was not found at the pyramid in Medium; on the contrary, since the Middle Kingdom many written documents have emerged that suggests that both the Medium pyramid and the nearby residential city were once called Djedsnefru, and therefore that Snefru was then considered to be their builder.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 167). But if Snefru was the finisher of the pyramid then it would make sense for his name to be in it and not Huni’s, but this is still debated. The remodeling of Huni’s Step Pyramid not only shows the architectural change but also the religious, because pyramids and the ancient Egyptian religion went hand in hand. “The monument’s step-shaped formed was abandoned in favor of a pyramid form, and the north-south orientation in favor of an east-west orientation. This apparently reflects an important shift in religious ideas that occurred during the transition from the Third to the Fourth Dynasty.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 167). Where as in the Early Dynasties the king was looked on as a god who would pass from this world to rule, in the Fourth Dynasty some scholars believe that this was when the Osiris legend came into being. “The king identified with Osiris, the ruler of the realm of the dead, and his death became a mythical event.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 167). So, again, the ruler was still looked on as a god but in a different way, and because of this religious ideal some pharaohs claimed themselves as Osiris in life. After looking over the construction of the pyramid at Medium most archaeologists’ claim that it was built in stages, where Snefru built on it, then stopped and after some years, started on it again. “What did surprise them [the archaeologists] was the smooth outside surface of each level, which seemed illogical and must have considerably decreased the cohesion of the layers and that of the structure as a whole. The explanation was provided largely by [Ludwig] Borchardt. He showed that the Medium Pyramid was built in three stages, during which the outward appearance changed significantly.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 162).

The second pyramid that King Snefru built is “one” of the smallest ever made; the Seila Pyramid. I say this because there are actually more than just four pyramids that have been found with Snefru’s name in them. So even though he is most famous for building only four there are actually six more pyramids that are questioned to be built by him. All of these pyramids are Step Pyramids and are quite small in structure. These other six Step Pyramids are found in Zawiyet El-Meiyitin, Sinki, Naqada, Kula, Edfu, and Elephantine. Looking at King Snefru’s pyramid in seila Verner comments: “It is surprising that the pyramid has no chambers either inside it or in its substructure and that, with the exception of the previously mentioned stela and offering tables, no evidence of a funerary cult has been found near it. Its meaning thus remains unclear, as does that of the structures associated with it.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 169). All the rest of the pyramids that were found with Snefru connected to them are still debated if he actually built them or not. Another one of these six pyramids I will cover in this paragraph is the one in Kula. The pyramid at Kula had more than just Egyptian culture influencing it, and during the time it was built there was a great deal Mesopotamian influence within Egypt, and the Kula pyramid shows this. The Mesopotamians built what is called ziggurats. These Mesopotamian style structures were very similar to the Egyptian Step Pyramids, which had the pyramid shape but with a flat top. They were made with sun-baked bricks and fire-baked bricks, which were similar to the materials used with Egypt’s pyramids, although Egyptians used limestone which was a much finer building material than just bricks. Also, like with the Egyptians, ziggurats were used for religious purposes. Verner goes on to explain the influence that Mesopotamian ziggurats had on the pyramid at Kula: “Since the Mesopotamian ziggurats were oriented in the same way, the pyramid in Kula and the nearby predynastic fortress in Hierakonpolis have been seen as further proof of Mesopotamian influence in Egypt – and as a place that was then playing an important role in the initial formation of the ancient Egyptian state. Hierakonpolis was at that time the capital of Upper Egypt and the center of the cult of the falcon god Horus. It has been proven that there were contacts between the Nile Valley and the Near East before the end of the Early Period, but this does not allow us to draw any conclusions regarding the relationship between the pyramid in Kula and the ziggurats.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramid, p. 171-172). These two small Step Pyramids, plus the other five, raise many questions for archaeologists and Scholars, and most of these questions will continue to be unanswered because many of the answers have died with the ancient Egyptians.

The two pyramids in Dashur created by the great builder, King Snefru, are the Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid. The Bent Pyramid was made as an experiment because Snefru wanted to change the Step Pyramid shape into an actual Pyramid form. Some Scholars believe that the south Bent Pyramid was meant to be the final resting place for Snefru, but in all the pyramids he created his remains have not been found. So where Snefru was laid is still a mystery, whether his body was stolen or moved archaeologists have yet to find his body. As I said before the Bent Pyramid was meant to be the start of pyramids changing from their step form into an actual pyramid: “This pyramid [The Bent Pyramid], whose form and name seem rather contradictory, was the first to have been planned from the outset to have the shape of a true pyramid.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 174). But this metamorphism from step pyramids to a true pyramid form had a lot of things go wrong with it and after some time Snefru had to abandon the Bent Pyramid because of its unstable structure. Snefru may have had the right idea for how to change the pyramid into a true pyramid shape, but sometimes the actual construction does not fit with the drawn up blueprints. Building any kind of structure can be tricky and especially when you want to change it from the old way into something new. Verner comments on the foundation on which the Bent Pyramid sits and its instability: “The foundation on which the pyramid was built consisted not of rock but rather of a relatively soft layer of slaty clay. The builders apparently did not take this sufficiently into account, and this seriously compromised the stability of the whole structure. The core, made of local limestone, rests directly on the clay, whereas the casing of fine white limestone, which is here better preserved than on any other Egyptian pyramid, stands on an artificially built foundation.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 174). Not only was the Bent pyramid unstable on it’s foundation but with the structure itself and so Snefru’s first attempt at making a true pyramid form was abandoned and the Red Pyramid was built in it’s place as the last pyramid Snefru made before his death. “Technical construction problems and the threatened collapse of the west corridor and the upper chamber in the Bent Pyramid seem to have led not only to the decision to build a new pyramid, but also to excessive caution.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 184). The reason it is called the “Red” Pyramid is because the limestone outer casing that used to cover up the red core structure has been either removed or eroded over time. One view is that during the Middle Ages people took off the limestone covering because of its value, this limestone came from Tura and that was considered one of the finer qualities of limestone. One interesting thing that makes Snefru stand out from many other Kings is that not only did build the most pyramids out of any Pharaoh, but that he built a pyramid town. This town was where the workers lived during the years it took to build the pyramids, where materials were stored, and was just like any other town except it was created specifically for the pyramids. Another interesting factor that Verner brings up is that when the Fourth Dynasty King, Snefru, wanted to change the old step pyramid form into a true pyramid, he also changed the religious aspect of the burial chamber in the Red Pyramid. “Whereas the burial chamber in the two preceding Snefru pyramids still followed Third Dynasty tradition in being oriented north-south, here for the first time the burial chamber was aligned with the orientation of the pyramid complex as a whole.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 186).

Snefru truly was the greatest pyramid builder of all Egypt, and even though his son, Khufu, built the biggest pyramid known to man Snefru built the most quantity of pyramids. But what is more important, quantity or quality? There are those who call Khufu the greatest builder of ancient Egypt and then there are those who give Snefru that title. But I believe both can share the title because if Snefru had not built his mass amount of pyramids maybe Khufu wouldn’t have been challenged to surpass his father and build the Great Pyramid of Giza. Snefru’s accomplishments just encouraged Khufu to strive to make one of the world’s seven wonders and the greatest man-made structure in history. But nonetheless Snefru was one of the greatest Kings of Egypt not only for his pyramids but also for his other accomplishments such as his military campaigns and other building projects. Later descriptions of King Snefru call him a benevolent ruler: “According to later tradition, Snefru was a great, benevolent ruler. Written documents – especially the annals inscribed on the famous Palermo stone – suggest that he built great ships and a palace of cedar wood, opened the diorite quarries near Abu Simbel, and conducted military campaigns in Nubia and Libya. However, his most spectacular feat in the course of his long reign was the construction of four pyramids.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 153). The last thing I will mention in this post is the chronology of the four pyramids, which is difficult to date the pyramids because as I mentioned before the Medium pyramid wasn’t built in one sitting but in different stages. “From the evidence available at this point we can conclude that Snefru first undertook the construction of the pyramid in Medium. At the end of stage E2, work on that construction was interrupted and the construction of the Bent Pyramid in Dashur begun. When problems emerged, the builders, undaunted, began constructing the Red Pyramid, but probably the rebuilding of the Medium Pyramid (E3) was undertaken at the same time. At present, the pyramid in Seila cannot be situated chronologically with greater precision.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 188). From this we can see why it is still debated if those other six pyramids were built by Snefru or possibly were just built to commemorate him, and if this is the case then Snefru must have indeed been a great ruler to his people.