Howard Carter

Dear Readership,

I have been away due to my current jobs, and I work as an independent contractor for online writing jobs. Basically, I write articles to advertise clients businesses and products, and I have about seven clients that I work for -- so I am ever busy. I cannot wait for the day when I will return to blogging on the things I am passionate about, but for now I must work. I would like to share with you a news article I came across talking about Google's picture of the day, which was remembering a famous archaeologist and Egyptologist Howard Carter. Of course I could not pass up reading about the picture on Google when I saw it, and since I use the search engine as my ultimate tool for my online research to write my articles. It was evident that I would see the picture and inquire about it (yes, I am praising Google for their unique pictures they put up). Anyways I thought you might like the article. Enjoy!

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/05/120509-howard-carter-google-doodle-tutankhamun-tomb-king-tut-science/?source=link_fb20120509news-carter

Current News

Dear readership,

Sorry I have been away for so long, but I am currently working a few advertising jobs at the moment and have not had any time to read and blog. I hate that I haven't had the chance to write for my blogs, but I am on my own and I need to work to take care of myself. I just read a recent News article from Yahoo.com and wanted to share it with you. I hope I can get back to writing soon because I really do enjoy it, and I enjoy reading and writing on anything to do with archaeology. Enjoy!

Winged structure found

Egypt’s Monuments Part X: The Rule Of Ra Part I: “The Fifth Dynasty – When The Sun Ruled”

Miroslav Verner’s next chapter deals with the Fifth Dynasty and the shift in the religious views as well as in the political ones. The ruler’s of the Fifth Dynasty were mostly made up of the priesthood, and if not, those who ruled were put into place because of the priesthood. This was the Dynasty with which the priesthood, and religion, started to take a significant role within Egyptian politics. In former Dynasties the monarchs were the ones in charge of the economic and political state, and they would only place their family members over the official offices. In the early Dynasties the priesthood played an insignificant part within the Egyptian state, and were only in charge of the religious factors of Egyptian life; they worked under the monarchs and only focused on their religious tasks. But in the Fifth Dynasty the religious officials started to take on more than their religious duties. This could have been because of the economic instability at the end of the Fourth Dynasty. The first ruler of the Fifth Dynasty may very well have had royal blood in him but he was also a High Priest. Before this dynasty the religion and state were separate, but the fall of the economy in the end of the Fourth Dynasty could have made the priesthood decide to intervene in state affairs.

A major political figure in the end of the Fourth Dynasty, and the beginning of the Fifth, was Queen Khentkaues I. Who is believed to have reigned for a short period during the gap between the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties. Her fame was not present during her time, but after. Rulers who came years after her famed her as being the mother of the sun kings. There is a papyrus displaying, what is believed to be, her story: “And ultimately the queen mother Khentkaues probably went down in ancient Egyptian literature as the heroine of the myth of the divine birth of the kings of the Fifth Dynasty. The account given in the Westcar papyrus was written a thousand years after these events, in the era of the Hyksos kings. In it Rudjedjet appears as the consort of a sun-cult priest from the city of Sakhebu and as the mother of the sun kings, whose father was supposed to be the sun god Re himself.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids: Their Archaeology and History. New York: Grove Press, 1997, p. 265). But like her supposed second husband, Userkaf, there is many more mysteries surrounding her than facts. Some Egyptologist believe that Userkaf could have been one of Menkaure’s sons: “His origin remains for the time being obscure, but he may have been, along with Shepseskaf, one of Menkaure’s sons. During his reign the sun cult seems to have reached its apogee, since from then on the title ‘son of Re’ became an inseparable part of the royal titulature. On the other hand, it is striking that in both Shepseskaf’s and Userkaf’s names the name of the sun god Re is lacking.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 265). There are chief events surrounding Userkaf’s name that entitles him to be the first ruler of the Fifth Dynasty, but other than that his origin and other main factors about him are unknown. He not only undertook campaigns in the typical country of Nubia, which his predecessors did as well, but also set up trade with other foreign countries; one of them being Greece. “He undertook a further campaign in Nubia, and during his reign renewed commercial contacts with foreign lands were developed, including contacts with the distant Greeks islands, as a stone vessel bearing his name and found on the island of Cythera shows.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 266). His successor was Sahure who continued the political strength and religious cult that Userkaf had set up.

The rulers of the Fifth Dynasty went down in ancient Egypt as the start of a new era and new religious ideals. But despite the impact that the Fifth Dynasty rulers had on Egyptians in later dynasties there was mystery shrouding all of the royals in power during that century. The only well known fact is that they had changed religion into a political office and the priesthood began to rise as a part of the state, instead of separate from it. There were a few rare ruler’s in the Fifth Dynasty who did not take on the recent religious ideals that had been set up, the sun cult, and one of these was King Djedkare. “At this time religious ideas and practices were spreading that had earlier played a role only at the highest level of society. The cult of the god Osiris, the ruler of the realm of the dead and the symbol of the eternal cycle of life and death, moved into the foreground. Shifts in religious ideas or economics or both were the basis for Djedkare’s decision not to have a sun temple built.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 272). Religion was not the only shift that occurred during this time, and like we saw with the first King of the Fifth Dynasty trade was established and both trade and crafts were prospering. “Crafts and trade were flourishing in the country, and additional expeditions were sent to Byblos, Nubia, and distant Punt, from whence the expedition’s leader, Baurdjed, even brought back a dancing dwarf to entertain the king. The fact that these expeditions did not always involve peaceful trade is shown by a unique scene of conquest preserved on the walls of Inti’s tomb in Deshasha in Middle Egypt.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 272). Another moderation that was established and prosperous during this era was writing: “Writing also flourished. In this period the famous work later known as The Maxims of Ptahhotep attributed by some scholars to Djedkare’s vizier of the same name. Its goal was to educate young men in absolute accord with the ancient Egyptian worldview and especially with the needs of the state.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 273).

The change from the end of the Fourth Dynasty to the beginning, and continuing on through, the Fifth Dynasty was as different as night and day. The Fourth Dynasty started off by prospering but in the end the political leaders, the monarchs, were not able to hold up the economy. Then it seems that once the priesthood changed its status from just a religious practice away from the state to becoming a political factor within the state; the economy was once again under stable rule. But was it truly the priesthood becoming part of the state that allowed the Fifth Dynasty rulers to flourish? So far this seems like the only possible solution to how Egypt’s economic stability was able to prosper after faltering in the last part of the Fourth Dynasty. For the religious officials of Egypt to combine with the state is not an uncommon act within civilizations. Many countries only prospered because of the funds that were brought in when religion became part of the state, but it is unclear if this is what happened in Egypt. Miroslav Verner focuses more on the pyramids in his book, and their construction, instead of state affairs and issues. But Egypt’s religion does play a major role within the Egyptian state and we can see it playing even a larger role during the Fifth Dynasty. Pyramids were created the way they were because of religion, and because many costs, materials, and manual labor went into building the pyramids we can make the hypothesis that the religion, indeed, did drive the Egyptian state.

A Break From Egypt’s History: An Introduction To Another Passion Of My Heart

I am going to take a small break from Miroslav Verner’s book to update my readership on the things that are going on. I want to introduce to another blog that I have started because of another passion I have. When I was young I was not only interested in history and archaeology, but I would spend hours reading and studying Animals, insects, and plants. How they lived, what they ate, their environments, and every other fact about them I could research. I believe that God created the animals and insects for specific purposes and through studying them I came to see that. I also saw another amazing thing, and that is through the animals and insects God is revealed. For Theologians, this is called general revelation; where an intelligent being is revealed through the things we see around us and even ourselves. But general revelation can only go so far, and this is why so many civilizations worshiped a god of some kind because they saw the things around them and knew it had to be created. But to learn and know who the true God is, the God of the Bible, we need to shown what is called “Special revelation,” which is what Paul used to tell the gentiles in Acts 17:23-32. Jesus was his message and he preached: “In the past God overlooked such ignorance, but now he commands all people everywhere to repent(v. 30).” Those who worshiped gods went through a time of ignorance, but because of Jesus there is no longer ignorance and the true God is shown. Because if he was not God he would not have risen from the dead, only God could have power over death. So through the general revelation of this world I wish in this blog to show how it can lead to proof that there is an intelligent designer, and that we know who He is and what He has done. That He came to this earth walked among us, was put to death, and then rose again on the third day. The creatures of the earth show the glory of God and that is why scripture says: “You will go out in joy and be led forth in peace; the mountains and hills will burst into song before you, and all the trees of the field will clap their hands. (Isaiah 55:12).” Because all of creation in the way God made it gives glory unto the Lord. The blog address is science-generalrevelation.blogspot.com and in this blog I desire to demonstrate that through the studies of Zoology, entomology, and botany the general revelation of God, an intelligent being, is clearly shown. Furthermore, by proving the existence of God, I wish to enlighten people to who God is, and encourage those who already know him to see how the creatures of earth proclaim his glory.

Enjoy,

Nicole Bittle

Egypt’s Monuments Part IX: The Pyramids Part VI; The Last Monarchs Of The Fourth Dynasty

In this post I will be finishing off Miroslav Verner’s chapter The Fourth Dynasty – The Greatest Of The Great and the last monuments mentioned are the third pyramid in Giza, the Mastabat Fara’un, and Queen Khentkaues I’s Step Pyramid. All of the monarchs responsible for the end of the Fourth Dynasty play significant roles in fall and economic instability in the end of the Fourth Dynasty. As stated in an earlier post the beginning of the Fourth Dynasty brought on much improvement from the Third, but in the end of the Fourth Dynasty the monarchs couldn’t keep this stability. One of these final rulers was a Queen who possibly ruled after her husband’s death, and was married to the first ruler of the Fifth Dynasty. Unlike Snefru, and even Khufu and Khafre, the last rulers of this era did not live long lives and died early. All three monarchs did not have sufficient supplies and resources to build as extravagant of tombs like their predecessors. This just shows how the end of the Fourth Dynasty differs from the beginning, with the Great Builder Snefru. The final pyramid at Giza is not as grand as the other two, although Khafre’s pyramid is a lot grander on the outside than inside, it is still a significant monument in Egypt’s history. This final pyramid took not one, but both of the final male ruler’s, to finish constructing it. Because of this many Egyptologist’s believe Shepseskaf built a mastaba instead of a pyramid. I will give a brief history of all three rulers and their accomplishments.

The first of these three rulers in the end of the Fourth Dynasty was the builder of the third pyramid in Giza; King Menkaure. The three pyramids of Giza are sometimes called the “great troika” and Menkaure’s pyramid is the smallest, and Verner states that this is where the start of the decline of the Fourth Dynasty was. “The smallest pyramid of the ‘great troika’ in Giza stands not far from the Nile and is called ‘Menkaure is divine.’ One might almost think that it anticipated, in its dimensions and partly unfinished state, the approaching decline of the Fourth Dynasty.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids: Their Archaeology and History. New York: Grove Press, 1997, p. 242). Menkaure was not able to finish his masterpiece and that task was left for his successor, but while working on it he tried to follow after the designs of Khufu and Khafre. He used pink granite mostly as well and in fact the entire outward casing was meant to be pink granite. “As in the case of Khafre’s pyramid, here too it was necessary to thoroughly prepare the rock subsoil, especially around the northeast corner. The difference in elevation between the base levels of the two pyramids is slight: Menkaure’s is only two and a half meters higher. Its core consists of limestone blocks quarried nearby. Up to a height of about fifteen meters, its casing is made of pink granite, while farther up it was probably made of limestone.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 242). One of the most fascinating objects within the pyramid was Menkaure’s sarcophagus, which differed from Khufu’s and Khafre’s, and was not made of pink granite: “On the burial chamber’s west wall Vyse [Richard W. H.] found a beautiful basalt sarcophagus decorated with niches and a lid ornamented with a concave cornice. Ricke [Herbert] saw a certain parallel between these decorations and those of the shrine of the god Anubis, and he interpreted them as an expression of the effort to increase the protection of the tomb by means of that divinity.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 245). Sadly the sarcophagus was lost in a ship wreck when it was being brought to Great Britain. Menkaure started on his pyramid complex, mortuary temples and all, but because of his early death his successor had the task of finishing these projects.

Shepseskaf’s reign was much shorter than that of Menkaure’s, and this may be why he was not able to build a pyramid but instead a mastaba. Egyptologists first thought the Mastabat Fara’un belonged to the last ruler of the Fifth Dynasty, but then through research and a fragmented stela found in the tomb it was accredited to Shepseskaf. The local people call the giant Mastaba tomb Mastabat Fara’un which means “Pharaoh’s Bench” and it is one of Egypt’s most puzzling tombs. One question is: why did he build this mastaba, a First Dynasty Pre-Dynastic era tomb, instead of the Fourth Dynasty pyramids that changed Egypt’s architecture forever? One of the answers to this is that Egypt’s economic stability was diminished in the end of the Fourth Dynasty. Unlike the pyramids of his predecessors Shepseskaf built his tomb out of mostly Limestone, which shows that he did not have the same materials accessible for building: “The casing consisted primarily of soft white limestone; only its lower level was made of pink granite.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 255). The mastaba opens up into a single corridor, or hallway, and then splits off into three big halls which hold the chambers and corridors of a typical tomb. Most scholars believe that the reason for why Shepseskaf built this mastaba is because he finished off all the available resources on Menkaure’s pyramid, and so resorted to making his tomb a mastaba. But there are those who have other ideas for why Shepseskaf built Mastbat Fara’un. One of these ideas is offered by Gustave Jequier: “He was convinced that Shepseskaf had intentionally chosen the unusual form of his royal tomb. As a protest against the increasing influence of the priesthood of the sun god Re, he rejected a tomb in the form of a pyramid, considered as a symbol of the sun, and decided to build a mastaba-like structure for himself. According to Jequier, the break with earlier tradition was emphasized by the fact that Shepseskaf did not have his tomb erected in the old cemetery at Giza, but rather in a distant place in modern South Saqqara. Jequier sees further evidence for his theory in the ruler’s name, which did not include the component re.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 257). But most Egyptologists go with the common idea that he didn’t have the materials to build a pyramid because of the fall in the economy at the end of the Fourth Dynasty.

The last ruler of the Fourth Dynasty was also one of the first Queens of the Fifth Dynasty. Queen Khentkaues I has a lot of mystery and uncertainty surrounding her. She is one of the rare queens who are thought to have ruled in Egypt, who is believed by some to have been the wife of Shepseskaf and then was remarried to the first king of the Fifth Dynasty, Userkaf. “He [Selim Hassan] considered Khentkaues I to be Shepseskaf’s consort and believed that after Shepseskaf’s death she ruled for a short time but was ultimately forced to yield power to the priesthood. The result was her marriage with Userkaf, the high priest of the sun god Re from Heliopolis and the later founder of the Fifth Dynasty. She refused, however, to be buried next to either her first or her second husband, and decided instead to have her own tomb built in Giza, near her royal predecessors.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 263). Her tomb was once considered to be the fourth pyramid at Giza and is said to resemble her first husband’s tomb; which would be the Mastabat Fara’un. Like her predecessors she used pink granite and limestone for the materials, and she tried to make both steps completely square. An interesting fact is that the tomb was altered: “Not long after it was completed, the tomb was substantially altered, probably during the first half of the Fifth Dynasty. Over the west half of the tomb, a limestone structure with an oblong plan that resembled a mastaba was built. It was intentionally not placed over the center of the tomb, since its weight might have ruptured the ceilings of the chambers in the lower part.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 260). The alteration on Khentkaues tomb is theorized to be because of the change of religion because where in the beginning of the Fourth Dynasty only those of the royal family ruled, during the time of Khentkaues the priesthood began to rule. Her second husband, a high priest, founded the Fifth Dynasty and this shows in the changes made to her tomb. “The transformation of the tomb, which probably took place at the beginning of the Fifth Dynasty, seems to have been intended to express a fundamental conceptual change connected with a later elevation of Khentkaues’s status and that of her cult. Only concern about the stability of the original rock-cut tomb prevented the construction of a pyramid with two or possibly three steps.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 261-262).

These last monarchs who ruled in the end of the Fourth Dynasty show through their tombs and building materials that the economy had plummeted from where it once was. Under the first King of this era, Snefru, the economy was flourishing, but like with all civilizations there are seasons of plenty and then seasons of hardship. Not only did the Fifth Dynasty bring about economical changes but the monarchy was changed as well. In the Fourth Dynasty those born of royal blood were the only ones who ruled Egypt, and many kings placed their royal family members in charge of the official offices. But the first ruler of the Fifth Dynasty was not a royal but instead a High Priest, and so the priesthood began to take a higher status then in the eras before. This began an inward fight that is commonly seen in civilizations, a battle of the monarchs and the priesthood. In some cases the monarchs win out and in others the priesthood does, and the first ruler of the Fifth Dynasty is proof of this type of instability. Many civilizations of the past have dealt with the same inward fighting, although it is mostly a political fight and blood is rarely shed over this type of warring. But nonetheless the instability of Egypt’s economy at that time shows that there was another hidden type of instability occurring; a political one.

Egypt’s Monuments Part VIII: The Pyramids Part V; The Man-Headed, Lion-Bodied Statue, “The Father Of Terror”

The Great Sphinx is a magnificent, massive statue whose builder and meaning are often questioned. Although most modern Egyptologists consign the statue to King Khafre of the Fourth Dynasty, who also built the second pyramid standing in Giza aside the Khufu’s Horizon, it is still debated. There were three sons of Khufu, and even though Khafre was the last in line to rule he was the only one to follow in Khufu’s foot-steps. The Other two monarchs between Khufu and Khafre abandoned building, and residing, in Giza and went to Abu Rawish to build their tombs. But both sons had early deaths and the second son, Djedefre, is the only mentioned as having reign in Egypt. The first son died before Khufu’s reign was up. After Djedefre’s death his half brother took over reign in Egypt; King Khafre. In this post I will first focus on Khafre’s pyramid which stands beside the Great Pyramid, and then I will proceed to explain the Great Sphinx’s existence in Egypt; who made it and its meaning. But doing so will be difficult because there are many mysteries behind the Great Sphinx and not a single Egyptologist can give a clear-cut answer to who built it and what its purpose is. As I said, Khafre was the next ruler of Egypt to follow in Khufu’s shoes and build a gigantic pyramid beside Khufu’s Horizon. But even though the middle pyramid of Giza looks as big as the Great Pyramid it is in fact smaller: “From a distance, the middle pyramid at Giza seems to be the highest, although it was originally some three meters lower than Khufu’s pyramid. It stands on a more elevated part of the necropolis, the angle of its walls is somewhat steeper, and its apex is in better condition, which makes it look bigger.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids: Their Archaeology and History. New York: Grove Press, 1997, p. 223). Though Khafre succeeded to build a major pyramid next to his father’s there are plenty of differences between the two pyramids, and you can never judge a book by its cover.

Even though the outer structure of the middle pyramid at Giza is sturdy, and has survived the harshness of the desert better then that of the Great Pyramid. Its inner structure and core are not as precisely built as that of the Great Pyramid. The middle pyramid of Giza is called “Khafre is Great” and its builder’s full name is Khafkhufu, but his name was changed to Khafre upon receiving the throne. Not only is Khafre recognized for the equally enormous pyramid standing next to the Great Pyramid, he also built many other, smaller, structures near and surrounding both pyramids. One of these is the Valley Temple, and the other is possibly the Great Sphinx. But working on so many structures throughout his lifetime came back to bite him. Unlike Snefru, Khafre knew that his lifespan might not be but so long, especially with his brother’s early deaths, and so he was rushed to do some of his projects more than others. One of these “rushed” projects was his tomb, so that it would be ready for his death. Even though the outer structure has withstood erosion, the inner structure is sloppier done than Khufu’s. “The core of Khafre’s pyramid was less carefully constructed than that of Khufu’s Great Pyramid: the layers do not always run exactly horizontally, the joints are sometimes very wide, and mortar is often lacking between blocks.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 225). Like Khufu he used pink granite as a material in the inner structure, but unlike Khufu he constructed the lower chambers in it and this provided a very unstable foundation. Which, being in a place where earthquake tremors happen often was not the brightest thing to do. Miroslav Verner tells how a team of Italian experts recently found evidence that tremors had quite an effect on the pyramid’s infrastructure: “They discovered that the corner edges of the remaining portions of the casing are not completely straight; the individual blocks are slightly turned in various directions. A very simple explanation for this peculiarity was confirmed by a computer simulation and suggests that the cause was seismic activity – not uncommon in either modern or ancient Egypt.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 226). Also like Khufu, Khafre used pink granite in the burial chamber and had his sarcophagus made entirely out of this material, his remains were never found as well. “Near the west wall stands the pink granite sarcophagus, sunk slightly into the floor; originally, it had a sliding top. A small shaft in the burial chamber’s floor originally contained the royal canopic vessel. However, no safely identified remains of Khafre’s mummy or his tomb furnishings were found.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 228).

Khafre not only worked on his pyramid, and possibly the Great Sphinx, but also built smaller structures surrounding both. Like with all kings and pharaohs of the past, a pyramid was not the only thing built and in it’s complex there were usually mortuary temples, plus other small temples and buildings surrounding the main it. Khafre built a mortuary temple, temples surrounding the Sphinx, and the valley temple. The main material used in all of Khafre’s projects was pink granite, as well as lime-stone, and he tended to use pink granite more than his predecessors. An interesting, and very unique, detail concerning the mortuary temple and the valley temple is that there was a tunnel underground that connected them. Only Khafre and King Amenemhet III have these tunnels within their pyramid complexes. These tunnels were lined with limestone blocks and would be like cement underground tunnels of today. “Particularly noteworthy was the discovery of ‘tunnels’ dug through the rock subsoil under the causeways; these were paved with limestone blocks and led to the two entrances to the valley temple. The tunnels have a slightly convex profile resembling that of a boat. A definitive interpretation of all these structures will probably not be available until the archaeological investigation is completed; however, they appear to be the remains of quays and structures occasionally used for burial ceremonies.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 232). Another interesting fact about Khafre’s buildings and projects is the numerous statues of himself found throughout his work. Unlike Khufu, who only had one statue that was found portraying him, there have been many statues found of Khafre: “The number of statues and their precise function, not only in Khafre’s pyramid complex but also in other pyramids, is a subject of debate among Egyptologists. For example, Edwards [Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards] estimates that there could have been as many as one or two hundred of them in the Khafre complex.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 233). Miroslav Verner goes on to describe the majesty of the valley temple and the structures surrounding the pyramids at Giza and the Great Sphinx. “The valley temple is not only a masterpiece of ancient Egyptian monumental architecture, but also the best preserved example of its kind in the Old Kingdom. For precisely that reason the area in front of it was cleared of sand, and in 1869 the temple, together with the other monuments of the pyramid necropolis in Giza, represented the background for the ceremonial opening of the Suez Canal, which was witnessed by a hand-picked elite among the entourage of Empress Eugenie.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 234).

As stated before even though the origin of the Great Sphinx is still unsure most Egyptologists place it as being created under the reign of Khafre. This mysterious structure is often debated and has marveled people across the centuries: “The Great Sphinx in Giza is more than simply a symbol of ancient and modern Egypt. It is the very embodiment of antiquity and of mystery itself. Over the centuries it has fired the imaginations of poets and scientists, adventurers and travelers.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 234). The native people call the Great Sphinx “Abu al-Hawl” which means “The Father of Terror.” Also the word sphinx is actually a Greek word, but the Egyptian word for it is shesep-ankh which means “living image.” All research and investigations on the Sphinx have come up with the precise measurement, the specific materials used, and everything except who built it and its purpose. There are those who date it during the time of Khufu, those who say it was during Djedefre’s reign, and others who say it was created by Khafre. Miroslav Verner himself agrees with it being done in Khafre’s era because of the archaeological contexts: “However, suggestions that it was created between 7000 and 5000 B.C.E., and possibly even earlier, are so incompatible with the specific archaeological and general historical contexts that they need not be taken seriously. Now as in the past, most Egyptologists believe the Sphinx was Khafre’s work and was created during the construction of his pyramid complex. Researchers base their opinion on carefully developed and verified work procedures and methods.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 236). This is why Verner places the Sphinx in Khafre’s section of his book. So if it’s true that the Great Sphinx was created when the pyramid complex was, then it would attest to why Khafre’s pyramid wasn’t built as architecturally good as Khufu’s, because he was working on more than one project at a time and since the Sphinx was the most unique structure he might have spent more time making that architecturally precise. The Sphinx has the head of a man and the body of a lion, and faces the east. On the head, the Sphinx wears the traditional nemes crown and uraeus symbol of the sacred asp, and was originally painted red which can still be seen vaguely. But who is the man the Sphinx’s face wears? There are many different theories on this as well. One is that it is the image of the sun god Re (or Ra), and the other view is that it bears Khafre’s image; but both are just hypotheses. From the time it was created unto recent times many people have taken on the task of reconstructing and preserving the Great Sphinx. In the New Kingdom era of Egypt Pharaoh Thutmose IV had a dream where the Sphinx spoke to him and promised him that he would become ruler if he removed the sand from off the Sphinx; this is recorded in dream stela. In Roman times, as well, there is evidence that restorations were made on the structure. In our time as well, 1998, the Sphinx was entirely restored, and I actually remember seeing this on the news when I was about ten years old.

All in all the Great Sphinx has marveled, amazed, and terrified people from the day it was built. It is just another testament to the awe-aspiring architecture of the ancient Egyptians. “The Great Sphinx (the local people call it Abu al-Hawl, “The Father of Terror”) is a colossal statue of a recumbent lion with the head of a ruler. It is over sixty meters long and twenty meters high, and was long considered the largest statue in the world.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 235). It is as intimidating as the three enormous pyramids that stand behind it, and has been sought out by people from every culture just so they could get a glimpse at its magnificence. The structures in Egypt are the most fascinating architectural amazement of the ancient world, but those that stand in Giza none can compare to them. I will leave you with a final quote from Miroslav Verner on Khafre and his achievements: “We can assume that with him the main branch of the royal family once again became dominant. Along with the growing importance of sun worship, the Re’s priesthood’s power further increased during Khafre’s reign. As a result, the Sphinx, which was worshiped as an image of the sun god Harmakhet (Greek Harmachis, ‘Horus in the horizon”), might have been incorporated into Khafre’s pyramid complex. The ruler retained strict control over the central state power and, through his family, over all the important offices of the land as well.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 157).

Egypt’s Monuments Part VII: The Pyramids Part IV; The First Seven Wonder Of The World

As promised Khufu is the next great king of Egypt I will cover. Khufu is famous for building one of the biggest structures in the world; the Great Pyramid of Giza. Like his father he achieved an architectural dream. Snefru was his father and we can assume that by watching his father build four, or more, pyramids that Khufu was challenged to surpass him. So instead of building many pyramids Khufu just built one enormous pyramid, so he chose quality over quantity. During this era of ancient Egypt the capitol city was Memphis and most kings of the Fourth Dynasty resided there, but Khufu moved his residence to modern day Giza and this is where he constructed his pyramid. Khufu’s full name was Khnemkhufu, and like his father he known to be a good and benevolent ruler. Many of the accomplishments Snefru did Khufu followed in his footsteps. He made boats and palaces out of cedar, and set up military campaigns in Nubia and Libya. But one thing he did that surpassed his father was the fact that he built the first earliest known dam in history. (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids: Their Archaeology and History. New York: Grove Press, 1997, p. 154-155). King Khufu made such an impact on history by building the Great Pyramid, but he also made an impact in his own time. As ruler he set up a hierarchy system with the royal family being the officials over the state, and this was the first time such a system was set up. Even after his death many royals wanted to be buried by him. “Around the pyramid was built a necropolis with smaller pyramids for the queens and mastabas for other members of the royal family and high state officials. It was an expression of the longing even after death to lie near the ‘good god’ – that is, the pharaoh – and at the same time it reflected the hierarchal social order of ancient Egypt, which resembled a pyramid in form.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 155).

There are only a few things I will focus on with King Khufu and the Great Pyramid, but Khufu, like Snefru, is a good king to mention because of his great achievement. There are many myths and stories surrounding the Great Pyramid of Giza because it looks like a task that was humanly impossible to do, especially in that time with the ancient technology they used. It would make more sense that aliens helped build it rather than human hands and wooden and stone pulleys and ramps. In fact that is one story surrounding the Great Pyramid that we most commonly see in movies; aliens helped to make it. But in fact it was build with just man-power, wooden ramps, papyrus ropes, and stone pulleys. This just shows that the Egyptians were advanced beyond their time. Miroslav Verner mentions the astonishment the Great Pyramid has had one people since the time it was built: “’Khufu’s Horizon,’ the Great Pyramid, was the first of the ancient Seven Wonders of the World. Surrounded by legends and mysteries, it has always aroused astonishment, admiration, and doubts as to whether it is the product of human hands at all. It has fascinated many generations of scholars and travelers.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 189). One of the most fascinating facts about the Great Pyramid is also a fact that is constantly debated by scholars and archaeologists alike, and that is the infrastructure, the inside, of the pyramid. I will get into some of these debates in a second, but first because of its substructure there could be many more hidden corridors and passageways that are still unfound and there are those who are still searching for them. “The debate about the Great Pyramid and its complex infrastructure will certainly go on for a long time. In this connection, we may quote a passage from the Westcar Papyrus: ‘His majesty Khufu spent time looking for hidden chambers in the temple of Thoth in order to create something like them for his Horizon’ (Khufu’s pyramid was called Khufu’s Horizon). This suggests that the author of the Middle Kingdom papyrus was aware of the complex plan of Khufu’s pyramid and had thought about its origin. The passage quoted above may also justify the efforts of those who are still searching for hidden rooms inside the pyramid.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 206). So it can be assumed from the Middle Kingdom text that Khufu purposefully built hidden rooms within the pyramid, and it would not be exaggerating to think this because of the enormous size of the pyramid.

One of the debated topics about the infrastructure of the Great Pyramid is the Queen’s Chamber and if it was meant to be a back-up chamber for the King in case he died before the completion of the pyramid. One of the things disputed with this is the shafts found in the Queen’s Chamber. In Egyptian worship of the dead the first mastabas and tombs would have shafts within the Kings chamber so that his soul would fly through them to reach the heavens where he would reign with the gods as a god. When the pyramids first started being made the shafts were built in them as well, but in the late Third early Fourth Dynasties the shafts in the pyramids first led down and then up to where the spirit of the king would exit to the heavens. “The Great Pyramid was not the only one in which the way out of the tomb led first downward and then upward in the direction of the pyramid’s entrance. For example, in the Medium Pyramid and in the Red Pyramid in Dashur the ruler’s soul had first to descend from the burial chamber in order to reach the ascending corridor that led out of the tomb.”(Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 201). But unlike those two pyramids the Great Pyramid had shafts that pointed north and south, and why would these shafts be in the Queen’s Chamber when the king was the only one who was looked on as a god? But, like I said, this is why some archaeologists believe that this chamber was meant to be a back-up chamber. Another view is that these were only built to be ventilation shafts so that the worker’s within the pyramid did not suffocate from lack of air, because both the Queen’s and King’s Chambers were above the entrance of the pyramid. “The architects realized that the circulation of air was made more difficult by the location of the chamber over the level of the pyramid’s entrance (both the King’s and the Queen’s Chambers are above this level), which could have led to serious problems if several people were in the chamber at once – during the burial rites, for example. The fact that the shafts are ‘astronomically aligned’ corresponds to the logic of the structure and to its builders’ practical conceptions and religious ideas. The ancient Egyptians were probably well aware that the dominant wind was from the north, as they commonly made use of it sailing on the Nile. Thus there was nothing unusual about the alignment of the shafts with a given star in the northern and southern skies; it thoroughly practical.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 201-202).

As mentioned in the first paragraph the Great Pyramid was not the only structure standing around it but there were smaller pyramids, mastabas, and walls that were possibly built by a king of a later era. But like his father Khufu had a small pyramid town where the workers would be housed, the materials kept, and any other necessary needs for the pyramid to be built. But another interesting fact about the surroundings around the Great Pyramid is the boat pits that were dug, with boats in them that were newly carved and had never been on water. But like with all findings the pits and the use of the boats is also debated: “The discovery of Khufu’s boat opened the discussions regarding the meaning of boat pits at the Great Pyramid and at royal tombs in general.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 209). Verner goes on to show us what the four views about the boat pits say: “the four boats buried near the east and south walls of the Great Pyramid were intended for the king’s use in traveling into the beyond in all four cardinal directions. The fifth pit near the approach causeway was supposed to contain the boat on which the king’s mummy was transported to the burial site……Other experts……considered the boat a sun boat and believed that the pharaoh was supposed to use it to travel over the heavenly ocean following the sun god Re……[Another two archaeologists] maintained that all the boats buried near the Great Pyramid were originally used to carry the pharaoh to Egypt’s holy places on pilgrimages and other ceremonial occasions……[Lastly] the boats were never in the water – traces of shavings around the boat pit show that they were built right next to the pyramid –…” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 209). So the purpose for the boats is still debated but as I mentioned in a previous post it was not uncommon for some cultures to bury their possessions with them.

The last things I wish to talk about from Miroslav Verner’s section on Khufu is the beautiful architecture with both the King’s Chamber and the Great Gallery. The Great Gallery is a long corridor that connects to the Queen’s Chamber and is one the most beautiful pieces of architectural work in history. Miroslav Verner goes on to explain the architecture in the Great Gallery: “The ceiling consists of a corbel vault built of seven layers of enormous lime-stone blocks, each of which projects about seven and a half centimeters. Low ramps run along both sides of the gallery. On their surfaces twenty-seven large and small square openings alternate at regular intervals. Corresponding to the right-angled niches in the side wall.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 197). Another architectural masterpiece that is as equally beautiful within the Great Pyramid is the King’s Chamber. The chamber, plus the sarcophagus, was made entirely out of pink granite. Even though limestone was one of the main materials used pink granite was also commonly used in the constructing of a pyramid. But the pink granite was harder to find and quarries had to be used to gather it and bring it to the building site. The reason for why pink granite was used in the King’s Chamber besides lime-stone or any other material wasn’t just because of it’s beautiful color but also because it was lighter, and because the King’s chamber was above the entrance and higher in the pyramid it was practical to use it. “To resist the enormous pressure, it was built entirely of pink granite. Its flat ceiling is composed of nine huge blocks with a combined wait of more than four hundred tons. The fact that there is only one small crack in the ceiling slabs (which appears only near the south wall) and that the chamber has withstood the tests of more than four and a half millennia, is to be explained not only by the building material used, but especially by the carefully thought out construction of the five relieving chambers over its ceiling.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 202). Not only was Khufu’s chamber made entirely out of pink granite but his sarcophagus, the item within the chamber, was as well. How the chamber must have looked like after it was finished in the time of Khufu? If its beauty has withstood the sands of time then it must have been twice as majestic in its newly finished form. Like many of the early pharaohs Khufu’s remains weren’t found inside the pink granite sarcophagus: “Near the west wall of the King’s Chamber stands Khufu’s pink granite sarcophagus, oriented north-south. Neither the cover nor any of the ruler’s bodily remains was found there.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 203). Many historians throughout time have had different theories on why this is. One of the most interesting is that during the construction of the King’s Chamber the crack in the ceiling happened and that it was heard throughout the pyramid and the eerie sound made Khufu decide not to be buried in his magnificent Horizon.