Egypt’s Monuments Part X: The Rule Of Ra Part I: “The Fifth Dynasty – When The Sun Ruled”

Miroslav Verner’s next chapter deals with the Fifth Dynasty and the shift in the religious views as well as in the political ones. The ruler’s of the Fifth Dynasty were mostly made up of the priesthood, and if not, those who ruled were put into place because of the priesthood. This was the Dynasty with which the priesthood, and religion, started to take a significant role within Egyptian politics. In former Dynasties the monarchs were the ones in charge of the economic and political state, and they would only place their family members over the official offices. In the early Dynasties the priesthood played an insignificant part within the Egyptian state, and were only in charge of the religious factors of Egyptian life; they worked under the monarchs and only focused on their religious tasks. But in the Fifth Dynasty the religious officials started to take on more than their religious duties. This could have been because of the economic instability at the end of the Fourth Dynasty. The first ruler of the Fifth Dynasty may very well have had royal blood in him but he was also a High Priest. Before this dynasty the religion and state were separate, but the fall of the economy in the end of the Fourth Dynasty could have made the priesthood decide to intervene in state affairs.

A major political figure in the end of the Fourth Dynasty, and the beginning of the Fifth, was Queen Khentkaues I. Who is believed to have reigned for a short period during the gap between the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties. Her fame was not present during her time, but after. Rulers who came years after her famed her as being the mother of the sun kings. There is a papyrus displaying, what is believed to be, her story: “And ultimately the queen mother Khentkaues probably went down in ancient Egyptian literature as the heroine of the myth of the divine birth of the kings of the Fifth Dynasty. The account given in the Westcar papyrus was written a thousand years after these events, in the era of the Hyksos kings. In it Rudjedjet appears as the consort of a sun-cult priest from the city of Sakhebu and as the mother of the sun kings, whose father was supposed to be the sun god Re himself.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids: Their Archaeology and History. New York: Grove Press, 1997, p. 265). But like her supposed second husband, Userkaf, there is many more mysteries surrounding her than facts. Some Egyptologist believe that Userkaf could have been one of Menkaure’s sons: “His origin remains for the time being obscure, but he may have been, along with Shepseskaf, one of Menkaure’s sons. During his reign the sun cult seems to have reached its apogee, since from then on the title ‘son of Re’ became an inseparable part of the royal titulature. On the other hand, it is striking that in both Shepseskaf’s and Userkaf’s names the name of the sun god Re is lacking.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 265). There are chief events surrounding Userkaf’s name that entitles him to be the first ruler of the Fifth Dynasty, but other than that his origin and other main factors about him are unknown. He not only undertook campaigns in the typical country of Nubia, which his predecessors did as well, but also set up trade with other foreign countries; one of them being Greece. “He undertook a further campaign in Nubia, and during his reign renewed commercial contacts with foreign lands were developed, including contacts with the distant Greeks islands, as a stone vessel bearing his name and found on the island of Cythera shows.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 266). His successor was Sahure who continued the political strength and religious cult that Userkaf had set up.

The rulers of the Fifth Dynasty went down in ancient Egypt as the start of a new era and new religious ideals. But despite the impact that the Fifth Dynasty rulers had on Egyptians in later dynasties there was mystery shrouding all of the royals in power during that century. The only well known fact is that they had changed religion into a political office and the priesthood began to rise as a part of the state, instead of separate from it. There were a few rare ruler’s in the Fifth Dynasty who did not take on the recent religious ideals that had been set up, the sun cult, and one of these was King Djedkare. “At this time religious ideas and practices were spreading that had earlier played a role only at the highest level of society. The cult of the god Osiris, the ruler of the realm of the dead and the symbol of the eternal cycle of life and death, moved into the foreground. Shifts in religious ideas or economics or both were the basis for Djedkare’s decision not to have a sun temple built.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 272). Religion was not the only shift that occurred during this time, and like we saw with the first King of the Fifth Dynasty trade was established and both trade and crafts were prospering. “Crafts and trade were flourishing in the country, and additional expeditions were sent to Byblos, Nubia, and distant Punt, from whence the expedition’s leader, Baurdjed, even brought back a dancing dwarf to entertain the king. The fact that these expeditions did not always involve peaceful trade is shown by a unique scene of conquest preserved on the walls of Inti’s tomb in Deshasha in Middle Egypt.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 272). Another moderation that was established and prosperous during this era was writing: “Writing also flourished. In this period the famous work later known as The Maxims of Ptahhotep attributed by some scholars to Djedkare’s vizier of the same name. Its goal was to educate young men in absolute accord with the ancient Egyptian worldview and especially with the needs of the state.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 273).

The change from the end of the Fourth Dynasty to the beginning, and continuing on through, the Fifth Dynasty was as different as night and day. The Fourth Dynasty started off by prospering but in the end the political leaders, the monarchs, were not able to hold up the economy. Then it seems that once the priesthood changed its status from just a religious practice away from the state to becoming a political factor within the state; the economy was once again under stable rule. But was it truly the priesthood becoming part of the state that allowed the Fifth Dynasty rulers to flourish? So far this seems like the only possible solution to how Egypt’s economic stability was able to prosper after faltering in the last part of the Fourth Dynasty. For the religious officials of Egypt to combine with the state is not an uncommon act within civilizations. Many countries only prospered because of the funds that were brought in when religion became part of the state, but it is unclear if this is what happened in Egypt. Miroslav Verner focuses more on the pyramids in his book, and their construction, instead of state affairs and issues. But Egypt’s religion does play a major role within the Egyptian state and we can see it playing even a larger role during the Fifth Dynasty. Pyramids were created the way they were because of religion, and because many costs, materials, and manual labor went into building the pyramids we can make the hypothesis that the religion, indeed, did drive the Egyptian state.

A Break From Egypt’s History: An Introduction To Another Passion Of My Heart

I am going to take a small break from Miroslav Verner’s book to update my readership on the things that are going on. I want to introduce to another blog that I have started because of another passion I have. When I was young I was not only interested in history and archaeology, but I would spend hours reading and studying Animals, insects, and plants. How they lived, what they ate, their environments, and every other fact about them I could research. I believe that God created the animals and insects for specific purposes and through studying them I came to see that. I also saw another amazing thing, and that is through the animals and insects God is revealed. For Theologians, this is called general revelation; where an intelligent being is revealed through the things we see around us and even ourselves. But general revelation can only go so far, and this is why so many civilizations worshiped a god of some kind because they saw the things around them and knew it had to be created. But to learn and know who the true God is, the God of the Bible, we need to shown what is called “Special revelation,” which is what Paul used to tell the gentiles in Acts 17:23-32. Jesus was his message and he preached: “In the past God overlooked such ignorance, but now he commands all people everywhere to repent(v. 30).” Those who worshiped gods went through a time of ignorance, but because of Jesus there is no longer ignorance and the true God is shown. Because if he was not God he would not have risen from the dead, only God could have power over death. So through the general revelation of this world I wish in this blog to show how it can lead to proof that there is an intelligent designer, and that we know who He is and what He has done. That He came to this earth walked among us, was put to death, and then rose again on the third day. The creatures of the earth show the glory of God and that is why scripture says: “You will go out in joy and be led forth in peace; the mountains and hills will burst into song before you, and all the trees of the field will clap their hands. (Isaiah 55:12).” Because all of creation in the way God made it gives glory unto the Lord. The blog address is science-generalrevelation.blogspot.com and in this blog I desire to demonstrate that through the studies of Zoology, entomology, and botany the general revelation of God, an intelligent being, is clearly shown. Furthermore, by proving the existence of God, I wish to enlighten people to who God is, and encourage those who already know him to see how the creatures of earth proclaim his glory.

Enjoy,

Nicole Bittle

Egypt’s Monuments Part IX: The Pyramids Part VI; The Last Monarchs Of The Fourth Dynasty

In this post I will be finishing off Miroslav Verner’s chapter The Fourth Dynasty – The Greatest Of The Great and the last monuments mentioned are the third pyramid in Giza, the Mastabat Fara’un, and Queen Khentkaues I’s Step Pyramid. All of the monarchs responsible for the end of the Fourth Dynasty play significant roles in fall and economic instability in the end of the Fourth Dynasty. As stated in an earlier post the beginning of the Fourth Dynasty brought on much improvement from the Third, but in the end of the Fourth Dynasty the monarchs couldn’t keep this stability. One of these final rulers was a Queen who possibly ruled after her husband’s death, and was married to the first ruler of the Fifth Dynasty. Unlike Snefru, and even Khufu and Khafre, the last rulers of this era did not live long lives and died early. All three monarchs did not have sufficient supplies and resources to build as extravagant of tombs like their predecessors. This just shows how the end of the Fourth Dynasty differs from the beginning, with the Great Builder Snefru. The final pyramid at Giza is not as grand as the other two, although Khafre’s pyramid is a lot grander on the outside than inside, it is still a significant monument in Egypt’s history. This final pyramid took not one, but both of the final male ruler’s, to finish constructing it. Because of this many Egyptologist’s believe Shepseskaf built a mastaba instead of a pyramid. I will give a brief history of all three rulers and their accomplishments.

The first of these three rulers in the end of the Fourth Dynasty was the builder of the third pyramid in Giza; King Menkaure. The three pyramids of Giza are sometimes called the “great troika” and Menkaure’s pyramid is the smallest, and Verner states that this is where the start of the decline of the Fourth Dynasty was. “The smallest pyramid of the ‘great troika’ in Giza stands not far from the Nile and is called ‘Menkaure is divine.’ One might almost think that it anticipated, in its dimensions and partly unfinished state, the approaching decline of the Fourth Dynasty.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids: Their Archaeology and History. New York: Grove Press, 1997, p. 242). Menkaure was not able to finish his masterpiece and that task was left for his successor, but while working on it he tried to follow after the designs of Khufu and Khafre. He used pink granite mostly as well and in fact the entire outward casing was meant to be pink granite. “As in the case of Khafre’s pyramid, here too it was necessary to thoroughly prepare the rock subsoil, especially around the northeast corner. The difference in elevation between the base levels of the two pyramids is slight: Menkaure’s is only two and a half meters higher. Its core consists of limestone blocks quarried nearby. Up to a height of about fifteen meters, its casing is made of pink granite, while farther up it was probably made of limestone.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 242). One of the most fascinating objects within the pyramid was Menkaure’s sarcophagus, which differed from Khufu’s and Khafre’s, and was not made of pink granite: “On the burial chamber’s west wall Vyse [Richard W. H.] found a beautiful basalt sarcophagus decorated with niches and a lid ornamented with a concave cornice. Ricke [Herbert] saw a certain parallel between these decorations and those of the shrine of the god Anubis, and he interpreted them as an expression of the effort to increase the protection of the tomb by means of that divinity.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 245). Sadly the sarcophagus was lost in a ship wreck when it was being brought to Great Britain. Menkaure started on his pyramid complex, mortuary temples and all, but because of his early death his successor had the task of finishing these projects.

Shepseskaf’s reign was much shorter than that of Menkaure’s, and this may be why he was not able to build a pyramid but instead a mastaba. Egyptologists first thought the Mastabat Fara’un belonged to the last ruler of the Fifth Dynasty, but then through research and a fragmented stela found in the tomb it was accredited to Shepseskaf. The local people call the giant Mastaba tomb Mastabat Fara’un which means “Pharaoh’s Bench” and it is one of Egypt’s most puzzling tombs. One question is: why did he build this mastaba, a First Dynasty Pre-Dynastic era tomb, instead of the Fourth Dynasty pyramids that changed Egypt’s architecture forever? One of the answers to this is that Egypt’s economic stability was diminished in the end of the Fourth Dynasty. Unlike the pyramids of his predecessors Shepseskaf built his tomb out of mostly Limestone, which shows that he did not have the same materials accessible for building: “The casing consisted primarily of soft white limestone; only its lower level was made of pink granite.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 255). The mastaba opens up into a single corridor, or hallway, and then splits off into three big halls which hold the chambers and corridors of a typical tomb. Most scholars believe that the reason for why Shepseskaf built this mastaba is because he finished off all the available resources on Menkaure’s pyramid, and so resorted to making his tomb a mastaba. But there are those who have other ideas for why Shepseskaf built Mastbat Fara’un. One of these ideas is offered by Gustave Jequier: “He was convinced that Shepseskaf had intentionally chosen the unusual form of his royal tomb. As a protest against the increasing influence of the priesthood of the sun god Re, he rejected a tomb in the form of a pyramid, considered as a symbol of the sun, and decided to build a mastaba-like structure for himself. According to Jequier, the break with earlier tradition was emphasized by the fact that Shepseskaf did not have his tomb erected in the old cemetery at Giza, but rather in a distant place in modern South Saqqara. Jequier sees further evidence for his theory in the ruler’s name, which did not include the component re.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 257). But most Egyptologists go with the common idea that he didn’t have the materials to build a pyramid because of the fall in the economy at the end of the Fourth Dynasty.

The last ruler of the Fourth Dynasty was also one of the first Queens of the Fifth Dynasty. Queen Khentkaues I has a lot of mystery and uncertainty surrounding her. She is one of the rare queens who are thought to have ruled in Egypt, who is believed by some to have been the wife of Shepseskaf and then was remarried to the first king of the Fifth Dynasty, Userkaf. “He [Selim Hassan] considered Khentkaues I to be Shepseskaf’s consort and believed that after Shepseskaf’s death she ruled for a short time but was ultimately forced to yield power to the priesthood. The result was her marriage with Userkaf, the high priest of the sun god Re from Heliopolis and the later founder of the Fifth Dynasty. She refused, however, to be buried next to either her first or her second husband, and decided instead to have her own tomb built in Giza, near her royal predecessors.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 263). Her tomb was once considered to be the fourth pyramid at Giza and is said to resemble her first husband’s tomb; which would be the Mastabat Fara’un. Like her predecessors she used pink granite and limestone for the materials, and she tried to make both steps completely square. An interesting fact is that the tomb was altered: “Not long after it was completed, the tomb was substantially altered, probably during the first half of the Fifth Dynasty. Over the west half of the tomb, a limestone structure with an oblong plan that resembled a mastaba was built. It was intentionally not placed over the center of the tomb, since its weight might have ruptured the ceilings of the chambers in the lower part.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 260). The alteration on Khentkaues tomb is theorized to be because of the change of religion because where in the beginning of the Fourth Dynasty only those of the royal family ruled, during the time of Khentkaues the priesthood began to rule. Her second husband, a high priest, founded the Fifth Dynasty and this shows in the changes made to her tomb. “The transformation of the tomb, which probably took place at the beginning of the Fifth Dynasty, seems to have been intended to express a fundamental conceptual change connected with a later elevation of Khentkaues’s status and that of her cult. Only concern about the stability of the original rock-cut tomb prevented the construction of a pyramid with two or possibly three steps.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 261-262).

These last monarchs who ruled in the end of the Fourth Dynasty show through their tombs and building materials that the economy had plummeted from where it once was. Under the first King of this era, Snefru, the economy was flourishing, but like with all civilizations there are seasons of plenty and then seasons of hardship. Not only did the Fifth Dynasty bring about economical changes but the monarchy was changed as well. In the Fourth Dynasty those born of royal blood were the only ones who ruled Egypt, and many kings placed their royal family members in charge of the official offices. But the first ruler of the Fifth Dynasty was not a royal but instead a High Priest, and so the priesthood began to take a higher status then in the eras before. This began an inward fight that is commonly seen in civilizations, a battle of the monarchs and the priesthood. In some cases the monarchs win out and in others the priesthood does, and the first ruler of the Fifth Dynasty is proof of this type of instability. Many civilizations of the past have dealt with the same inward fighting, although it is mostly a political fight and blood is rarely shed over this type of warring. But nonetheless the instability of Egypt’s economy at that time shows that there was another hidden type of instability occurring; a political one.

Egypt’s Monuments Part VIII: The Pyramids Part V; The Man-Headed, Lion-Bodied Statue, “The Father Of Terror”

The Great Sphinx is a magnificent, massive statue whose builder and meaning are often questioned. Although most modern Egyptologists consign the statue to King Khafre of the Fourth Dynasty, who also built the second pyramid standing in Giza aside the Khufu’s Horizon, it is still debated. There were three sons of Khufu, and even though Khafre was the last in line to rule he was the only one to follow in Khufu’s foot-steps. The Other two monarchs between Khufu and Khafre abandoned building, and residing, in Giza and went to Abu Rawish to build their tombs. But both sons had early deaths and the second son, Djedefre, is the only mentioned as having reign in Egypt. The first son died before Khufu’s reign was up. After Djedefre’s death his half brother took over reign in Egypt; King Khafre. In this post I will first focus on Khafre’s pyramid which stands beside the Great Pyramid, and then I will proceed to explain the Great Sphinx’s existence in Egypt; who made it and its meaning. But doing so will be difficult because there are many mysteries behind the Great Sphinx and not a single Egyptologist can give a clear-cut answer to who built it and what its purpose is. As I said, Khafre was the next ruler of Egypt to follow in Khufu’s shoes and build a gigantic pyramid beside Khufu’s Horizon. But even though the middle pyramid of Giza looks as big as the Great Pyramid it is in fact smaller: “From a distance, the middle pyramid at Giza seems to be the highest, although it was originally some three meters lower than Khufu’s pyramid. It stands on a more elevated part of the necropolis, the angle of its walls is somewhat steeper, and its apex is in better condition, which makes it look bigger.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids: Their Archaeology and History. New York: Grove Press, 1997, p. 223). Though Khafre succeeded to build a major pyramid next to his father’s there are plenty of differences between the two pyramids, and you can never judge a book by its cover.

Even though the outer structure of the middle pyramid at Giza is sturdy, and has survived the harshness of the desert better then that of the Great Pyramid. Its inner structure and core are not as precisely built as that of the Great Pyramid. The middle pyramid of Giza is called “Khafre is Great” and its builder’s full name is Khafkhufu, but his name was changed to Khafre upon receiving the throne. Not only is Khafre recognized for the equally enormous pyramid standing next to the Great Pyramid, he also built many other, smaller, structures near and surrounding both pyramids. One of these is the Valley Temple, and the other is possibly the Great Sphinx. But working on so many structures throughout his lifetime came back to bite him. Unlike Snefru, Khafre knew that his lifespan might not be but so long, especially with his brother’s early deaths, and so he was rushed to do some of his projects more than others. One of these “rushed” projects was his tomb, so that it would be ready for his death. Even though the outer structure has withstood erosion, the inner structure is sloppier done than Khufu’s. “The core of Khafre’s pyramid was less carefully constructed than that of Khufu’s Great Pyramid: the layers do not always run exactly horizontally, the joints are sometimes very wide, and mortar is often lacking between blocks.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 225). Like Khufu he used pink granite as a material in the inner structure, but unlike Khufu he constructed the lower chambers in it and this provided a very unstable foundation. Which, being in a place where earthquake tremors happen often was not the brightest thing to do. Miroslav Verner tells how a team of Italian experts recently found evidence that tremors had quite an effect on the pyramid’s infrastructure: “They discovered that the corner edges of the remaining portions of the casing are not completely straight; the individual blocks are slightly turned in various directions. A very simple explanation for this peculiarity was confirmed by a computer simulation and suggests that the cause was seismic activity – not uncommon in either modern or ancient Egypt.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 226). Also like Khufu, Khafre used pink granite in the burial chamber and had his sarcophagus made entirely out of this material, his remains were never found as well. “Near the west wall stands the pink granite sarcophagus, sunk slightly into the floor; originally, it had a sliding top. A small shaft in the burial chamber’s floor originally contained the royal canopic vessel. However, no safely identified remains of Khafre’s mummy or his tomb furnishings were found.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 228).

Khafre not only worked on his pyramid, and possibly the Great Sphinx, but also built smaller structures surrounding both. Like with all kings and pharaohs of the past, a pyramid was not the only thing built and in it’s complex there were usually mortuary temples, plus other small temples and buildings surrounding the main it. Khafre built a mortuary temple, temples surrounding the Sphinx, and the valley temple. The main material used in all of Khafre’s projects was pink granite, as well as lime-stone, and he tended to use pink granite more than his predecessors. An interesting, and very unique, detail concerning the mortuary temple and the valley temple is that there was a tunnel underground that connected them. Only Khafre and King Amenemhet III have these tunnels within their pyramid complexes. These tunnels were lined with limestone blocks and would be like cement underground tunnels of today. “Particularly noteworthy was the discovery of ‘tunnels’ dug through the rock subsoil under the causeways; these were paved with limestone blocks and led to the two entrances to the valley temple. The tunnels have a slightly convex profile resembling that of a boat. A definitive interpretation of all these structures will probably not be available until the archaeological investigation is completed; however, they appear to be the remains of quays and structures occasionally used for burial ceremonies.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 232). Another interesting fact about Khafre’s buildings and projects is the numerous statues of himself found throughout his work. Unlike Khufu, who only had one statue that was found portraying him, there have been many statues found of Khafre: “The number of statues and their precise function, not only in Khafre’s pyramid complex but also in other pyramids, is a subject of debate among Egyptologists. For example, Edwards [Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards] estimates that there could have been as many as one or two hundred of them in the Khafre complex.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 233). Miroslav Verner goes on to describe the majesty of the valley temple and the structures surrounding the pyramids at Giza and the Great Sphinx. “The valley temple is not only a masterpiece of ancient Egyptian monumental architecture, but also the best preserved example of its kind in the Old Kingdom. For precisely that reason the area in front of it was cleared of sand, and in 1869 the temple, together with the other monuments of the pyramid necropolis in Giza, represented the background for the ceremonial opening of the Suez Canal, which was witnessed by a hand-picked elite among the entourage of Empress Eugenie.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 234).

As stated before even though the origin of the Great Sphinx is still unsure most Egyptologists place it as being created under the reign of Khafre. This mysterious structure is often debated and has marveled people across the centuries: “The Great Sphinx in Giza is more than simply a symbol of ancient and modern Egypt. It is the very embodiment of antiquity and of mystery itself. Over the centuries it has fired the imaginations of poets and scientists, adventurers and travelers.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 234). The native people call the Great Sphinx “Abu al-Hawl” which means “The Father of Terror.” Also the word sphinx is actually a Greek word, but the Egyptian word for it is shesep-ankh which means “living image.” All research and investigations on the Sphinx have come up with the precise measurement, the specific materials used, and everything except who built it and its purpose. There are those who date it during the time of Khufu, those who say it was during Djedefre’s reign, and others who say it was created by Khafre. Miroslav Verner himself agrees with it being done in Khafre’s era because of the archaeological contexts: “However, suggestions that it was created between 7000 and 5000 B.C.E., and possibly even earlier, are so incompatible with the specific archaeological and general historical contexts that they need not be taken seriously. Now as in the past, most Egyptologists believe the Sphinx was Khafre’s work and was created during the construction of his pyramid complex. Researchers base their opinion on carefully developed and verified work procedures and methods.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 236). This is why Verner places the Sphinx in Khafre’s section of his book. So if it’s true that the Great Sphinx was created when the pyramid complex was, then it would attest to why Khafre’s pyramid wasn’t built as architecturally good as Khufu’s, because he was working on more than one project at a time and since the Sphinx was the most unique structure he might have spent more time making that architecturally precise. The Sphinx has the head of a man and the body of a lion, and faces the east. On the head, the Sphinx wears the traditional nemes crown and uraeus symbol of the sacred asp, and was originally painted red which can still be seen vaguely. But who is the man the Sphinx’s face wears? There are many different theories on this as well. One is that it is the image of the sun god Re (or Ra), and the other view is that it bears Khafre’s image; but both are just hypotheses. From the time it was created unto recent times many people have taken on the task of reconstructing and preserving the Great Sphinx. In the New Kingdom era of Egypt Pharaoh Thutmose IV had a dream where the Sphinx spoke to him and promised him that he would become ruler if he removed the sand from off the Sphinx; this is recorded in dream stela. In Roman times, as well, there is evidence that restorations were made on the structure. In our time as well, 1998, the Sphinx was entirely restored, and I actually remember seeing this on the news when I was about ten years old.

All in all the Great Sphinx has marveled, amazed, and terrified people from the day it was built. It is just another testament to the awe-aspiring architecture of the ancient Egyptians. “The Great Sphinx (the local people call it Abu al-Hawl, “The Father of Terror”) is a colossal statue of a recumbent lion with the head of a ruler. It is over sixty meters long and twenty meters high, and was long considered the largest statue in the world.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 235). It is as intimidating as the three enormous pyramids that stand behind it, and has been sought out by people from every culture just so they could get a glimpse at its magnificence. The structures in Egypt are the most fascinating architectural amazement of the ancient world, but those that stand in Giza none can compare to them. I will leave you with a final quote from Miroslav Verner on Khafre and his achievements: “We can assume that with him the main branch of the royal family once again became dominant. Along with the growing importance of sun worship, the Re’s priesthood’s power further increased during Khafre’s reign. As a result, the Sphinx, which was worshiped as an image of the sun god Harmakhet (Greek Harmachis, ‘Horus in the horizon”), might have been incorporated into Khafre’s pyramid complex. The ruler retained strict control over the central state power and, through his family, over all the important offices of the land as well.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 157).

Egypt’s Monuments Part VII: The Pyramids Part IV; The First Seven Wonder Of The World

As promised Khufu is the next great king of Egypt I will cover. Khufu is famous for building one of the biggest structures in the world; the Great Pyramid of Giza. Like his father he achieved an architectural dream. Snefru was his father and we can assume that by watching his father build four, or more, pyramids that Khufu was challenged to surpass him. So instead of building many pyramids Khufu just built one enormous pyramid, so he chose quality over quantity. During this era of ancient Egypt the capitol city was Memphis and most kings of the Fourth Dynasty resided there, but Khufu moved his residence to modern day Giza and this is where he constructed his pyramid. Khufu’s full name was Khnemkhufu, and like his father he known to be a good and benevolent ruler. Many of the accomplishments Snefru did Khufu followed in his footsteps. He made boats and palaces out of cedar, and set up military campaigns in Nubia and Libya. But one thing he did that surpassed his father was the fact that he built the first earliest known dam in history. (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids: Their Archaeology and History. New York: Grove Press, 1997, p. 154-155). King Khufu made such an impact on history by building the Great Pyramid, but he also made an impact in his own time. As ruler he set up a hierarchy system with the royal family being the officials over the state, and this was the first time such a system was set up. Even after his death many royals wanted to be buried by him. “Around the pyramid was built a necropolis with smaller pyramids for the queens and mastabas for other members of the royal family and high state officials. It was an expression of the longing even after death to lie near the ‘good god’ – that is, the pharaoh – and at the same time it reflected the hierarchal social order of ancient Egypt, which resembled a pyramid in form.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 155).

There are only a few things I will focus on with King Khufu and the Great Pyramid, but Khufu, like Snefru, is a good king to mention because of his great achievement. There are many myths and stories surrounding the Great Pyramid of Giza because it looks like a task that was humanly impossible to do, especially in that time with the ancient technology they used. It would make more sense that aliens helped build it rather than human hands and wooden and stone pulleys and ramps. In fact that is one story surrounding the Great Pyramid that we most commonly see in movies; aliens helped to make it. But in fact it was build with just man-power, wooden ramps, papyrus ropes, and stone pulleys. This just shows that the Egyptians were advanced beyond their time. Miroslav Verner mentions the astonishment the Great Pyramid has had one people since the time it was built: “’Khufu’s Horizon,’ the Great Pyramid, was the first of the ancient Seven Wonders of the World. Surrounded by legends and mysteries, it has always aroused astonishment, admiration, and doubts as to whether it is the product of human hands at all. It has fascinated many generations of scholars and travelers.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 189). One of the most fascinating facts about the Great Pyramid is also a fact that is constantly debated by scholars and archaeologists alike, and that is the infrastructure, the inside, of the pyramid. I will get into some of these debates in a second, but first because of its substructure there could be many more hidden corridors and passageways that are still unfound and there are those who are still searching for them. “The debate about the Great Pyramid and its complex infrastructure will certainly go on for a long time. In this connection, we may quote a passage from the Westcar Papyrus: ‘His majesty Khufu spent time looking for hidden chambers in the temple of Thoth in order to create something like them for his Horizon’ (Khufu’s pyramid was called Khufu’s Horizon). This suggests that the author of the Middle Kingdom papyrus was aware of the complex plan of Khufu’s pyramid and had thought about its origin. The passage quoted above may also justify the efforts of those who are still searching for hidden rooms inside the pyramid.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 206). So it can be assumed from the Middle Kingdom text that Khufu purposefully built hidden rooms within the pyramid, and it would not be exaggerating to think this because of the enormous size of the pyramid.

One of the debated topics about the infrastructure of the Great Pyramid is the Queen’s Chamber and if it was meant to be a back-up chamber for the King in case he died before the completion of the pyramid. One of the things disputed with this is the shafts found in the Queen’s Chamber. In Egyptian worship of the dead the first mastabas and tombs would have shafts within the Kings chamber so that his soul would fly through them to reach the heavens where he would reign with the gods as a god. When the pyramids first started being made the shafts were built in them as well, but in the late Third early Fourth Dynasties the shafts in the pyramids first led down and then up to where the spirit of the king would exit to the heavens. “The Great Pyramid was not the only one in which the way out of the tomb led first downward and then upward in the direction of the pyramid’s entrance. For example, in the Medium Pyramid and in the Red Pyramid in Dashur the ruler’s soul had first to descend from the burial chamber in order to reach the ascending corridor that led out of the tomb.”(Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 201). But unlike those two pyramids the Great Pyramid had shafts that pointed north and south, and why would these shafts be in the Queen’s Chamber when the king was the only one who was looked on as a god? But, like I said, this is why some archaeologists believe that this chamber was meant to be a back-up chamber. Another view is that these were only built to be ventilation shafts so that the worker’s within the pyramid did not suffocate from lack of air, because both the Queen’s and King’s Chambers were above the entrance of the pyramid. “The architects realized that the circulation of air was made more difficult by the location of the chamber over the level of the pyramid’s entrance (both the King’s and the Queen’s Chambers are above this level), which could have led to serious problems if several people were in the chamber at once – during the burial rites, for example. The fact that the shafts are ‘astronomically aligned’ corresponds to the logic of the structure and to its builders’ practical conceptions and religious ideas. The ancient Egyptians were probably well aware that the dominant wind was from the north, as they commonly made use of it sailing on the Nile. Thus there was nothing unusual about the alignment of the shafts with a given star in the northern and southern skies; it thoroughly practical.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 201-202).

As mentioned in the first paragraph the Great Pyramid was not the only structure standing around it but there were smaller pyramids, mastabas, and walls that were possibly built by a king of a later era. But like his father Khufu had a small pyramid town where the workers would be housed, the materials kept, and any other necessary needs for the pyramid to be built. But another interesting fact about the surroundings around the Great Pyramid is the boat pits that were dug, with boats in them that were newly carved and had never been on water. But like with all findings the pits and the use of the boats is also debated: “The discovery of Khufu’s boat opened the discussions regarding the meaning of boat pits at the Great Pyramid and at royal tombs in general.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 209). Verner goes on to show us what the four views about the boat pits say: “the four boats buried near the east and south walls of the Great Pyramid were intended for the king’s use in traveling into the beyond in all four cardinal directions. The fifth pit near the approach causeway was supposed to contain the boat on which the king’s mummy was transported to the burial site……Other experts……considered the boat a sun boat and believed that the pharaoh was supposed to use it to travel over the heavenly ocean following the sun god Re……[Another two archaeologists] maintained that all the boats buried near the Great Pyramid were originally used to carry the pharaoh to Egypt’s holy places on pilgrimages and other ceremonial occasions……[Lastly] the boats were never in the water – traces of shavings around the boat pit show that they were built right next to the pyramid –…” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 209). So the purpose for the boats is still debated but as I mentioned in a previous post it was not uncommon for some cultures to bury their possessions with them.

The last things I wish to talk about from Miroslav Verner’s section on Khufu is the beautiful architecture with both the King’s Chamber and the Great Gallery. The Great Gallery is a long corridor that connects to the Queen’s Chamber and is one the most beautiful pieces of architectural work in history. Miroslav Verner goes on to explain the architecture in the Great Gallery: “The ceiling consists of a corbel vault built of seven layers of enormous lime-stone blocks, each of which projects about seven and a half centimeters. Low ramps run along both sides of the gallery. On their surfaces twenty-seven large and small square openings alternate at regular intervals. Corresponding to the right-angled niches in the side wall.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 197). Another architectural masterpiece that is as equally beautiful within the Great Pyramid is the King’s Chamber. The chamber, plus the sarcophagus, was made entirely out of pink granite. Even though limestone was one of the main materials used pink granite was also commonly used in the constructing of a pyramid. But the pink granite was harder to find and quarries had to be used to gather it and bring it to the building site. The reason for why pink granite was used in the King’s Chamber besides lime-stone or any other material wasn’t just because of it’s beautiful color but also because it was lighter, and because the King’s chamber was above the entrance and higher in the pyramid it was practical to use it. “To resist the enormous pressure, it was built entirely of pink granite. Its flat ceiling is composed of nine huge blocks with a combined wait of more than four hundred tons. The fact that there is only one small crack in the ceiling slabs (which appears only near the south wall) and that the chamber has withstood the tests of more than four and a half millennia, is to be explained not only by the building material used, but especially by the carefully thought out construction of the five relieving chambers over its ceiling.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 202). Not only was Khufu’s chamber made entirely out of pink granite but his sarcophagus, the item within the chamber, was as well. How the chamber must have looked like after it was finished in the time of Khufu? If its beauty has withstood the sands of time then it must have been twice as majestic in its newly finished form. Like many of the early pharaohs Khufu’s remains weren’t found inside the pink granite sarcophagus: “Near the west wall of the King’s Chamber stands Khufu’s pink granite sarcophagus, oriented north-south. Neither the cover nor any of the ruler’s bodily remains was found there.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 203). Many historians throughout time have had different theories on why this is. One of the most interesting is that during the construction of the King’s Chamber the crack in the ceiling happened and that it was heard throughout the pyramid and the eerie sound made Khufu decide not to be buried in his magnificent Horizon.   

Egypt’s Monuments Part VI: The Pyramids Part III; The Great Builder Snefru

Like I said in my last post I am going to deal with one of Egypt’s famous kings, and his most famed feat during his lifetime was the four pyramids he constructed. In Miroslav Verner’s chapter, The Fourth Dynasty – The Greatest Of The Great, he talks about the pharaohs who are behind the greatest architectural accomplishments within Egypt’s history; three of those pyramids being the Pyramids of Giza. The Third Dynasty rulers invented the pyramid, King Djoser, but the Fourth Dynasty kings improved upon them and created some of the world’s greatest structures. The first king of the Fourth Dynasty was Snefru, and he inherited the throne from King Huni. Most pharaohs only built one pyramid in their life time but Snefru is famous for building four, which signifies that he lived and reigned for a long time. He made two pyramids that were near where he eventually resided in Dashur, and then one in Medium, and one in Seila. Miroslav Verner talks about the progress made in the Fourth Dynasty with King Snefru: “Under his reign the strongly centralized Egyptian state reached the apex of its power, and indirect but eloquent testimony to this fact is provided by the mighty pyramids in Dashur and Giza.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids: Their Archaeology and History. New York: Grove Press, 1997, p. 153). Many people think that King Khufu, who built the Great Pyramid, was the greatest builder of all time, but Snefru built four pyramids during his time when Khufu only built one. So the title, as well, can go to Snefru for being the greatest builder in Egypt. Khufu was the son of Snefru so we can claim that he got his ingenuity for building from his father. In this post I will give brief summaries of Snefru’s four pyramids and their architecture.

The first pyramid of Snefru’s that Verner examines is the Pyramid at Medium. Medium is located on the map near the Nile and was called Medium because it literally was the middle part of Egypt. It was a few miles from Giza and Memphis. The Pyramid was believed to be started by Huni, Snefru’s predecessor, and Snefru was put to the task of finishing it. King Huni, the last King of the Third Dynasty, built the pyramid to be a Step Pyramid, but Snefru modified it and made it into a true pyramid with an apex. Most Step Pyramids did not have an apex on them, the tip of the pyramid, and the tops of the Step Pyramids were flat. Snefru took Huni’s idea and improved upon it, and this started what is called the Golden Age of the Old Kingdom. But Verner goes on to say that this idea of King Huni building the first sections on the pyramid and Snefru taking it over is questioned because only Snefru’s name appears on the pyramid. “Huni’s name was not found at the pyramid in Medium; on the contrary, since the Middle Kingdom many written documents have emerged that suggests that both the Medium pyramid and the nearby residential city were once called Djedsnefru, and therefore that Snefru was then considered to be their builder.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 167). But if Snefru was the finisher of the pyramid then it would make sense for his name to be in it and not Huni’s, but this is still debated. The remodeling of Huni’s Step Pyramid not only shows the architectural change but also the religious, because pyramids and the ancient Egyptian religion went hand in hand. “The monument’s step-shaped formed was abandoned in favor of a pyramid form, and the north-south orientation in favor of an east-west orientation. This apparently reflects an important shift in religious ideas that occurred during the transition from the Third to the Fourth Dynasty.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 167). Where as in the Early Dynasties the king was looked on as a god who would pass from this world to rule, in the Fourth Dynasty some scholars believe that this was when the Osiris legend came into being. “The king identified with Osiris, the ruler of the realm of the dead, and his death became a mythical event.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 167). So, again, the ruler was still looked on as a god but in a different way, and because of this religious ideal some pharaohs claimed themselves as Osiris in life. After looking over the construction of the pyramid at Medium most archaeologists’ claim that it was built in stages, where Snefru built on it, then stopped and after some years, started on it again. “What did surprise them [the archaeologists] was the smooth outside surface of each level, which seemed illogical and must have considerably decreased the cohesion of the layers and that of the structure as a whole. The explanation was provided largely by [Ludwig] Borchardt. He showed that the Medium Pyramid was built in three stages, during which the outward appearance changed significantly.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 162).

The second pyramid that King Snefru built is “one” of the smallest ever made; the Seila Pyramid. I say this because there are actually more than just four pyramids that have been found with Snefru’s name in them. So even though he is most famous for building only four there are actually six more pyramids that are questioned to be built by him. All of these pyramids are Step Pyramids and are quite small in structure. These other six Step Pyramids are found in Zawiyet El-Meiyitin, Sinki, Naqada, Kula, Edfu, and Elephantine. Looking at King Snefru’s pyramid in seila Verner comments: “It is surprising that the pyramid has no chambers either inside it or in its substructure and that, with the exception of the previously mentioned stela and offering tables, no evidence of a funerary cult has been found near it. Its meaning thus remains unclear, as does that of the structures associated with it.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 169). All the rest of the pyramids that were found with Snefru connected to them are still debated if he actually built them or not. Another one of these six pyramids I will cover in this paragraph is the one in Kula. The pyramid at Kula had more than just Egyptian culture influencing it, and during the time it was built there was a great deal Mesopotamian influence within Egypt, and the Kula pyramid shows this. The Mesopotamians built what is called ziggurats. These Mesopotamian style structures were very similar to the Egyptian Step Pyramids, which had the pyramid shape but with a flat top. They were made with sun-baked bricks and fire-baked bricks, which were similar to the materials used with Egypt’s pyramids, although Egyptians used limestone which was a much finer building material than just bricks. Also, like with the Egyptians, ziggurats were used for religious purposes. Verner goes on to explain the influence that Mesopotamian ziggurats had on the pyramid at Kula: “Since the Mesopotamian ziggurats were oriented in the same way, the pyramid in Kula and the nearby predynastic fortress in Hierakonpolis have been seen as further proof of Mesopotamian influence in Egypt – and as a place that was then playing an important role in the initial formation of the ancient Egyptian state. Hierakonpolis was at that time the capital of Upper Egypt and the center of the cult of the falcon god Horus. It has been proven that there were contacts between the Nile Valley and the Near East before the end of the Early Period, but this does not allow us to draw any conclusions regarding the relationship between the pyramid in Kula and the ziggurats.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramid, p. 171-172). These two small Step Pyramids, plus the other five, raise many questions for archaeologists and Scholars, and most of these questions will continue to be unanswered because many of the answers have died with the ancient Egyptians.

The two pyramids in Dashur created by the great builder, King Snefru, are the Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid. The Bent Pyramid was made as an experiment because Snefru wanted to change the Step Pyramid shape into an actual Pyramid form. Some Scholars believe that the south Bent Pyramid was meant to be the final resting place for Snefru, but in all the pyramids he created his remains have not been found. So where Snefru was laid is still a mystery, whether his body was stolen or moved archaeologists have yet to find his body. As I said before the Bent Pyramid was meant to be the start of pyramids changing from their step form into an actual pyramid: “This pyramid [The Bent Pyramid], whose form and name seem rather contradictory, was the first to have been planned from the outset to have the shape of a true pyramid.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 174). But this metamorphism from step pyramids to a true pyramid form had a lot of things go wrong with it and after some time Snefru had to abandon the Bent Pyramid because of its unstable structure. Snefru may have had the right idea for how to change the pyramid into a true pyramid shape, but sometimes the actual construction does not fit with the drawn up blueprints. Building any kind of structure can be tricky and especially when you want to change it from the old way into something new. Verner comments on the foundation on which the Bent Pyramid sits and its instability: “The foundation on which the pyramid was built consisted not of rock but rather of a relatively soft layer of slaty clay. The builders apparently did not take this sufficiently into account, and this seriously compromised the stability of the whole structure. The core, made of local limestone, rests directly on the clay, whereas the casing of fine white limestone, which is here better preserved than on any other Egyptian pyramid, stands on an artificially built foundation.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 174). Not only was the Bent pyramid unstable on it’s foundation but with the structure itself and so Snefru’s first attempt at making a true pyramid form was abandoned and the Red Pyramid was built in it’s place as the last pyramid Snefru made before his death. “Technical construction problems and the threatened collapse of the west corridor and the upper chamber in the Bent Pyramid seem to have led not only to the decision to build a new pyramid, but also to excessive caution.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 184). The reason it is called the “Red” Pyramid is because the limestone outer casing that used to cover up the red core structure has been either removed or eroded over time. One view is that during the Middle Ages people took off the limestone covering because of its value, this limestone came from Tura and that was considered one of the finer qualities of limestone. One interesting thing that makes Snefru stand out from many other Kings is that not only did build the most pyramids out of any Pharaoh, but that he built a pyramid town. This town was where the workers lived during the years it took to build the pyramids, where materials were stored, and was just like any other town except it was created specifically for the pyramids. Another interesting factor that Verner brings up is that when the Fourth Dynasty King, Snefru, wanted to change the old step pyramid form into a true pyramid, he also changed the religious aspect of the burial chamber in the Red Pyramid. “Whereas the burial chamber in the two preceding Snefru pyramids still followed Third Dynasty tradition in being oriented north-south, here for the first time the burial chamber was aligned with the orientation of the pyramid complex as a whole.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 186).

Snefru truly was the greatest pyramid builder of all Egypt, and even though his son, Khufu, built the biggest pyramid known to man Snefru built the most quantity of pyramids. But what is more important, quantity or quality? There are those who call Khufu the greatest builder of ancient Egypt and then there are those who give Snefru that title. But I believe both can share the title because if Snefru had not built his mass amount of pyramids maybe Khufu wouldn’t have been challenged to surpass his father and build the Great Pyramid of Giza. Snefru’s accomplishments just encouraged Khufu to strive to make one of the world’s seven wonders and the greatest man-made structure in history. But nonetheless Snefru was one of the greatest Kings of Egypt not only for his pyramids but also for his other accomplishments such as his military campaigns and other building projects. Later descriptions of King Snefru call him a benevolent ruler: “According to later tradition, Snefru was a great, benevolent ruler. Written documents – especially the annals inscribed on the famous Palermo stone – suggest that he built great ships and a palace of cedar wood, opened the diorite quarries near Abu Simbel, and conducted military campaigns in Nubia and Libya. However, his most spectacular feat in the course of his long reign was the construction of four pyramids.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 153). The last thing I will mention in this post is the chronology of the four pyramids, which is difficult to date the pyramids because as I mentioned before the Medium pyramid wasn’t built in one sitting but in different stages. “From the evidence available at this point we can conclude that Snefru first undertook the construction of the pyramid in Medium. At the end of stage E2, work on that construction was interrupted and the construction of the Bent Pyramid in Dashur begun. When problems emerged, the builders, undaunted, began constructing the Red Pyramid, but probably the rebuilding of the Medium Pyramid (E3) was undertaken at the same time. At present, the pyramid in Seila cannot be situated chronologically with greater precision.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 188). From this we can see why it is still debated if those other six pyramids were built by Snefru or possibly were just built to commemorate him, and if this is the case then Snefru must have indeed been a great ruler to his people.

Egypt’s Monuments Part V: The Pyramids Part II; The Construction Behind Egypt’s Pyramids

Unlike in my last post I will be going back a few steps to explain how the pyramids were built. So before we go on with other famous kings of Egypt, like I did with King Djoser, we will be looking at the effort, time, and work labor behind the making of the pyramids. One thing that we will find out through Miroslav Verner’s chapter The Construction of The Pyramds is that there is little known about the process of building the pyramids. The amount of workers used to do the building is always disputed, and whether they used pulleys or ramps is debated also. In general many things surrounding the building process of the pyramids is theoretical. A pyramid wasn’t just built in a day or two. A lot of work went into the construction plus gathering the materials, and lastly making the pyramid geometrically precise. Because a pyramid wasn’t constructed in just one year, a pharaoh would work on it through his entire lifetime and sometimes it wasn’t finished before his death. There is one known Pharaoh who built four pyramids throughout his lifetime, Snefru, and this shows that it wasn’t impossible to finish more than one pyramid but as a pharaoh your reign and lifetime had to be quite extensive. Snefru is the next great King of Egypt, like Djoser, that I will deal with in my next post. But for now we’re going to focus on the building, materials, and workers used for constructing Egypt’s pyramids.

I have some experience with construction because my family built our own log cabin. Unlike the ancient Egyptians, today you can buy a kit to build your house and you don’t have to draw up your own blueprints and plans, they’re already drawn up and all you have to do is pick the best fit. It took us two years until the house was livable, and even after we moved in we had many more things to do to finish it up. So having had a little experience with building I still can’t imagine how long, and how many workers, it must have taken for a pyramid to be completed. Much about the construction of the pyramids is unknown and often disputed. The amount of workers used for a single pyramid, whether they were paid or forced, and lastly the inventions they used for construction are all debated and theoretical. Miroslav Verner shows us the many theories behind the amount of workers used on one of the world’s greatest wonders, the Great Pyramid of Giza, because if the amount of laborers used for the largest pyramid constructed the amount for all other pyramids can be easily estimated. But because the ancient Egyptians didn’t keep records, or they were destroyed, the amount of workers used is all left up to hypotheses. For the Great Pyramid of Giza the range of workers has been disputed from 100,000 to 300,000, but no archaeologist or historian has given the correct amount. We would have to go back in time to know the exact sum of personnel used. Even the ancient historian’s, Herodotus, sum of 100,000 doesn’t fit. (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids: Their Archaeology and History. New York: Grove Press, 1997, p. 76-78). When looking at the Great Pyramid from the outside it seems almost inhumanly impossible to make such a gargantuan object, but an interesting discovery made recently shows that the Great Pyramid holds secrets, not only in its mass chambers, but also in the construction itself. Verner talks about a 1980 discovery led by French and Egyptians researchers who used ultrasound technology on the pyramid: “Their measurements showed that in the core of the Great Pyramid large cavities had been filled with pure sand. During construction the ‘chamber method’ was probably used, which significantly accelerated the work and made it easier and less expensive.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 78). So the difficult process we assume by looking at just the outside of the Great Pyramid is all but an illusion. So taking this in account the estimate of the workers used is still theoretical and unknown, but Verner goes on to say that Egyptologists place the sum at 30,000. “In the case of the Great Pyramid at Giza, the current consensus among Egyptologists sets the figure at a little more than 30,000.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 81).

But one thing that can be known about the workforce handling Egypt’s pyramids is the organization. There were those assigned to gathering the materials for the pyramid, and those who worked on the pyramid itself. Plus many other personnel like the overseers, specialized workers, and architects. Whatever the sum of workers, they were split up into five teams which were called “Phylia.” This word is taken from the Greek word “Phyle” which means tribe, group, and brother-hood. This root word is used in the Bible to distinguish “Brotherly love.” These five “Phylia” were then divided into four more groups but only three teams worked on a project at a time. This manner of organization is most commonly seen on ancient vessels and is used to direct a ship’s crew. (Miroslav Verner, p.79). Every team of “Phyle,” and the groups inside them, were directed and overseen by a leader. The thing that is disputed about is what work did they do? It is assumed that these were the workers assigned to gathering the materials needed for the pyramid. These materials were usually a far distance away from the construction site, and many Pharaohs had their pyramids far from where the materials were. Mostly because the Pharaohs built their pyramids in the place they resided, so that when they passed on they didn’t have to be moved far. The most used material in the pyramids, from the time of Djoser on, was limestone and it was used for many of Egypt’s structures; they called it “White stone” because of the color. “White stone” had to be mined and was brought to the construction site in large chunks, which made moving it, from the mines to the site, difficult. Expeditions had to be made to gather the proper materials, and even though it’s debated, the most thought of method for moving the stone blocks to the working area was the use of the Nile river. “When the stone was not available close to the building site, it sometimes had to be brought down the Nile as far as several hundred kilometers away. This was the fastest and least difficult mode of transportation, and written and pictorial evidence proves that it was quite often used, taking advantage of a network of artificial canals, and especially the annual floods, which caused the Nile’s level to rise several meters so that its water flowed far out over the land, right up to the foot of the desert plateau chosen as a construction site.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 65).

Also besides these teams that worked on gathering the materials to be used for the pyramids, there were other working teams that worked on the pyramid itself. “In addition to the ‘team’ system, another system was used in construction, which involved dividing up workers according to the cardinal compass points, north, south, and west. An eastern group is nowhere documented, and another term was used in its place, perhaps because in Egyptian eastern, like left, meant ‘bad.’” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 80). The last thing I’ll deal with about the workers is it’s often wondered if the labor force was paid or forced? Verner give answers this question with a Sixth Dynasty papyrus text from an overseer: “In his letter, the foreman complains that clothes for his workers have not been received on time and that time has been lost waiting for them; thus he indirectly draws attention to the resulting delays in the planned work schedule. This text also suggests that the work party was staying near the royal residence. It can therefore be assumed that the state not only provided clothing for the workers, but also fed and lodged them.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 81). So from this we can conclude that the workers were well taken care of and possibly paid, but there may have been Pharaohs who did use forced labor; like in the case of the Israelites who were under slavery (Exodus 1:11-14).

In this next paragraph I will be dealing with the last argument that surrounds the making of the pyramids; what technique did they use to raise the pyramids? The two types of methods that are assumed to be used are either pulleys or ramps. Throughout the years archaeologists have debated over which one was used, and both objects have been found around the remains of the pyramids. The ancient historian, Herodotus, who claims he was there to see the Great Pyramid built, says that they used short wooden scaffolding and lifting devices provided for each step. Another ancient historian, Diodorus Siculus, says that they used ramps. (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 82). In the 1930’s what looked like to be stone pulleys were found by Selim Hassan: “He found a large stone object that looked like a nail in whose hammered head three parallel notches had been cut.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 83). The question is how could something so small raise stone blocks that weighed tons? And this is often unanswered. But the most favored view is Diodorus’, and ramps have been discovered as well among the pyramids: “Today, most conceptions of pyramid construction are based on Diodorus’ account, which describes the use of inclined planes or ramps. His account has been lent some support by archaeologists’ discovery of the remains of ramps, which have been found in Medium, Dashur, Abu Ghurab, and Abusir.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 85-86). Within this view of ramps being used Verner goes through nine archaeologists’ theories on how the ramps were used. (Miroslav Verner, p. 86-93). Some say that they were elongated to be put on the first and last section without making another ramp and others claim that they made a ramp for each section. One of the best rounded solutions to how the ramps were used comes from A world-renowned expert on the pyramids, Jean-Philippe Lauer. “He suggests that during construction a whole system of cleverly combined ramps of various sizes and gradients was built. At the same time, of course, additional tools and lifting devices were used – wooden levers, round beams, poles, and ropes.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 89). Lauer uses the Great Pyramid to support his theory and ramps were used along with the blocks being put into place by a counter-weight system that used sand bags. In the end Verner answers the question to which technique was used in the construction of the pyramids: “To the question of whether lifting devices or ramps were used, we may reply simply: both.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 89).

In conclusion we see that the ancient Egyptians did not just throw the pyramids together. There was a large amount of work put into it and not only the labor, but the planning, and the gathering of materials as well. The Egyptians did all that they could to make the pyramids precise mathematically and geometrically, and this shows that they had vast knowledge of mathematics and used it to construct their buildings. They are not very different from the architects of our time and the math used is the same although they had a few things off. But what the ancient Egyptians accomplished through their architecture and construction is known to be one of the highly advance in ancient civilizations. Verner explains that many documents record the Egyptians mathematics and I will leave you with this quote: “The Rhind papyrus and the Moscow papyrus, for example, contain various mathematical procedures and problems that show that although ancient Egyptians were not able to formulate mathematical laws with precision, they possessed sound practical knowledge and knew how to make the fullest use of it. They worked with a decimal system and were able to use fractions. They could calculate the area of a triangle, a rectangle, a circle, and even the surface area of a hemisphere; they could determine angles and the volumes of geometrical shapes, including pyramids, cylinders, and cones.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 69).           

Egypt’s Monuments Part IV: The Pyramids Part I; The Djoser Step Pyramid

Since the last post I did on the first pyramid of Egypt I have been reading more on the King Djoser and his step pyramid. Miroslav Verner deals Djoser’s step pyramid in the fourth chapter of his book, and because I just posted on the reconstruction of the Step Pyramid I have decided to devote some time on King Djoser and his pyramid complex. I will also be dealing with the religious festivals and how they connect to Djoser’s pyramid. King Djoser started a new “fad” among Egyptian kings and all rulers after him made their tombs in a similar fashion. These were the first pyramids of Egypt and not only did the tombs evolve but the range of land surrounding the tomb, the social economy, and government administration: “Djoser’s monumental edifices testify to a powerful upswing in the Egyptian economy at the beginning of the Third Dynasty and to a rise in the productivity of agriculture, crafts, and building. At the same time, writing was developing, along with astronomy, mathematics, land measurement, and – of course – governmental administration.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids: Their Archaeology and History. New York: Grove Press, 1997, p. 106). His Step Pyramid made such an impact of Egyptian life since and the famous pyramids of Giza used Djoser’s form of architecture. “Later generations also considered this to be an important epoch in Egypt’s history.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p 106). The religious factor behind the tombs evolved as well, because of how much land surrounded the pyramid. Djoser’s pyramids had two temples around it which was each filled with priests and people to upkeep them: “The basic echelon of priests employed at the pyramid complex consisted of the ‘god’s servants’ and those who bore the ambiguous title of khentiu-she. The latter were responsible for various kinds of agricultural and technical work, the transportation of goods into the temple, and guard duty; they also took part in the ceremonies……A relatively small proportion of the temple personnel consisted of the priests who were known as ‘the pure.’ The lector priests constituted a very small and in many respects exclusive group that was not expected to perform any economic or guardian function but was responsible solely for the conduct of the ritual; they organized the ceremonies in accord with the principles of the temple cult.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 59).

In this paragraph I will present the history behind the king who established the first Pyramid in the world. The illustrious Djoser ruled in the early Third Dynasty of Egypt. It wasn’t until the Third Dynasty that Egypt started to transform and become a stable society. “The culminating phase of Egypt’s economic, political, and cultural ascent, known to modern historians as the Old Kingdom, began with the Third Dynasty.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 105). So King Djoser played an important part in the rise of Egypt, to what we think of ancient Egypt today. King Djoser is believed by some scholars to be the son of one of Egypt’s key figures of that era; Queen Nimaathap I. But it is unclear about the lineage of the first rulers of the Third Dynastic period. Although the king of the first Step Pyramid is commonly known as King Djoser his name is sometimes recorded as King Netjerikhet. It is still unclear what connection he had with Queen Nimaathap I and is debated among all scholars, but it s still thought that he was her son. “Egyptologists agree that the key figure in the murky dynastic situation of this time [Third Dynasty] was Queen Nimaathap I, but it is unclear exactly what role she played. Some scholars believe that Nimaathap was Khasekhemwy’s daughter, Sanakht’s consort, and the mother of Netjerikhet.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 105). Verner goes on to mention the impact King Djoser had on the Third Dynastic period and also how a German excavation discovered that it was King Netjerikhet (Djoser) who buried Queen Nimaathap I: “They make it clear that King Netjerikhet arranged Queen Nimaathap I’s funeral, and that he may also have been the founder of the Third Dynasty. In any case, Netjerikhet, more commonly known under his later name, Djoser, was the most impressive figure in the early years of this dynasty. Researchers have found the ruins of temples Djoser built in Heliopolis in Lower Egypt and in Gebelein in Upper Egypt. Djoser’s most significant work, however, is his tomb, the famed Step Pyramid in Saqqara, the first example of this kind of tomb and an architectural milestone.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 106). This give us some insight behind the man who built the first pyramid of Egypt.

Finally, I will cover the Egyptian festivals and how it connects with Djoser’s tomb. As I said before King Djoser’s pyramid complex did not just include his tomb, the Step Pyramid, but had acres of land around it with buildings surrounding the pyramid. The ground plan of Djoser’s complex consists of: “1. pyramid; 2. entry colonnade; 3. south tomb; 4. south courtyard; 5. ‘T’ temple; 6. Sed festival complex; 7. south pavilion; 8. north pavilion; 9. mortuary temple; 10. west mounds.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 108). You don’t have to be an architect or a topographer to know that this is a lot of land surrounding Djoser’s tomb, and that there are more than just one building sitting on that land. The ground plan of King Djoser’s complex shows us how beautiful it must have been when it was first built. It is one of the most outstanding monuments in our history: “Few monuments hold a place in human history as significant as that of the Step Pyramid in Saqqara……It can be said without exaggeration that his pyramid complex constitutes a milestone in the evolution of monumental stone architecture in Egypt and in the whole world as well.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 108-109). Let us focus on one the many buildings with Djoser’s complex, the Sed festival complex, because this is a structure with a very unique purpose. The Sed festival complex consisted of building that were sandwiched between the “T” temple and the Step Pyramid. Its entire meaning is only symbolic. The Sed festival is a festival that the meaning behind it is still debated: “The precise meaning of the word sed is not known, and not much is known about the meaning of the festival, which is generally seen as a celebration of the king’s accession to the throne and a ceremony of renewal intended to strengthen the ruler’s power.”(Verner, p. 129). But this is only one view to why the Sed festival was held. “The whole festival may have a distant echo of a harsh prehistoric ritual in which the ruler had to prove his physical strength or be ritually killed and replaced by a younger successor.”(Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids,  p. 129-130). This festival was not the only festival that occurred throughout the year the Egyptian priests held many religious festivals during the year. Today we hold celebrations or festivals because of our religious background. As Christians we celebrate religious and non-religious festivals during the year, and sometimes we celebrate them just for remembrance of an historical event; Like Veterans Day. But we also celebrate Good Friday, Easter, and Christmas which are all religious holidays. In conclusion I am going to end with a quote from Verner about the Djoser Step Pyramid and its unique functions and structure:

“Because of its originality, the group of buildings constituting Djoser’s tomb is very difficult to interpret. It is sure to remain a subject of debate among Egyptologists for a long time and to give rise to various, often conflicting theories. In general, researchers agree that the complex manifests the consolidation of the political and economic situation in Egypt after the turbulent and often strife-ridden period of the Second Dynasty.” (Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids, p. 137).